■■'S. 


r. 


THE 

FARRIER'S   MANUAL; 

BEING 

A  PLAIN  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

ON    THE    ART    OF 

HUSBANDRY, 

DESIGNED 

ro  mOMOTE  AN  ACQUAINTANCE 

WITH    THE 

MODERN  IMPR0\:EMFNTS 

.   ■  ,  IN 

AGRIGUiTU-RE,'      '-   - 

TOGETHER  WITH  REMARKS  ON 

GARDENING, 

AND  A  TREAJlSJ^iXm.-^''^----^  ^  ^^ 


BY  FREDERICK  BUTLER,  A.M.    ^ 

AVlrtOR    OF    THE     "   CATECHETICAL     CO^IPEND    OF    HISTORY,'* 
"  HISTORICAL   SKETCHES,"    &C. 


HARTFORD :      . 

PUBLISHED    BY    SAMUEL    G.    GOODRICH* 
Clart  &  Lyman,  Prijit..,.Middletoivn. 

1819; 


^.S 


O-A 


ji^mspW 


Be  it  REMEMBUtiED,  That  on  the  twcnWhili 
day  of  October,  in   the  forty-fourth  year  of  tlinde- 
pendence  of  the  United  States  of  America,   SaMl  G. 
Goodrich,  of  the  said  District,  hath  deposited  this 
mm^  t;i?e/itle_of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  prcj^tor, 

"  The  Farmer'' s  Manual;  being  a  plain  Practical  ^^caa'4  ^ 
art  of  Husbandry,  designed  to  promote  an  acquaintance  4  //^g 
modern  improvements  in  Agriculture,  together  with  reml  on 
Gardening^  and  a  Treatise  on  the  management  of  m  fy,. 
Frederick  Butler,  A .  M.  author  of  the  '  Catechetical  C\nd 
€f  History,'*  *  Historical  Sketches,'*  kc.'*'* 

In  conformity  to  tlie  Act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  StatL- 
titled,  "  An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securhe 
copies  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Books,  to  the  authors  and  propt 
of  such  copies,  during  the  time  therein  mentioned." 
CHAS.  A.   INGERSOLL, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  Con7ie\, 
A  true  copy  of  Record,  examined  and  sealed  by  me, 
CHAS,  A.  INGERSOLL, 

Chrk  of  the  District  of  Connei 


PREFACE. 


The  great  object  of  this  work  is  to  collect  all  the  most 
I  valuable  improvements  in  husbandry,  both  in  Europe  and 
^America,  as  they  stand  recorded  by  the  most  learned  and 
approved  authors,  and  reduce  the  whole  to  one  plain  prac- 
tical system  of  American  farming,  adapted  to  our  cli- 
mate, the  state  of  our  markets,  and  more  particularly,  to 
the  high  price  of  labour  in  our  country. 

Having  been  engaged  in  farming  upon  a  large  scale  for 
about  thirty  years,  and  in  the  course  of  that  time,  tested 
by  my  own  experience  most  of  the  European  systems  ;  I 
enter  with  some  confidence  upon  the  labours  before  me  j 
but  with  what  success,  the  public  alone  can  decide. 

By  abridging  the  learned  work  of  Mr.  Huish  on  the 
Culture  of  the  Bee,  as  an  addition  to  the  work,  together 
with  a  few  practical  remarks  on  Gardening  ;  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  compress  into  one  cheap  volume,  all  that  is 
both  valuable  a»d  useful  in  the  science  of  husbandry,  and 
for  the  special  use  of  the  plain  practical  American  farmer. 
The  whole  is  interspersed  with  occasional  remarks  of 
the  Author. 

Farming  has  generally  been  considered,  in  our  country, 
as  a  rustic,  old  fashioned  business,  that  any  man  of  com- 
mon  sense  could  do,  if  he  chose;  and  what  was  really  be- 
low the  attention  of  a  gentleman  ;  but  happy  is  it  for  our 
country,  such  sentiments  are  daily  passing  under  the  lash 
of  public  opinion,  and  the  true  worth  of  the  farmer,  and 
the  art  of  farming,  are  rising  to  their  true  scale  of  pubhc 
estimation. 

The  Agricultural  Societies  of  our  country,  will  in  a  few 
.years  excite  an  emulation,  that  will  make  our  farms,  in 
some  measure,  resemble  the  Salem  Alms-Hoiise  farm,  and 
our  farmers  become   the  Paul  Uptons  of  their  country. 

The  numerous  benefits  resulting  to  every  family  from 


iV  PREFACE. 

the  productions  of  a  well  cultivated  Garden,  are  too  evi- 
dent  to  need  any  remarks  by  way  of  illustration.  The 
health  they  afford  to  the  family,  not  only  in  the  luxuries 
which  they  furnish  for  the  table  ;  but  in  the  exercise, 
amusement,  and  enjoyment  they  impart  in  their  cultiva- 
tion, exceed  all  description  :  in  fact,  the  fruits  and  vege- 
tables of  a  garden  are  the  life  of  a  family,  upon  every 
principle  of  enjoyment  and  economy.  I  have  wholly  omit- 
ted all  remarks  upon  the  flower-garden,  and  confined  my- 
<?elf  to  the  plain  and  useful  remarks  of  the  sauce,  or  kitch- 
en-^av(}(^rt.  with  a  few  hints  upon  garden-fruits  generally. 


I 


INTRODUCTION. 


:■>^:^^«|ir■'■ 


Venemie^  th€^  I^lmiffh, ; 


'&' 


HcsBANd&Y  was  the  first  employment  of  man,  therefore, 
the  most  ancient,  the  most  honourable,  and,  above  all,  of 
Divine  appointment. 

The  earth  is  not  only  the  Parent  of  man,  under  God, 
but  the  Parent  of  all  his  support.  Husbandry  is,  therefore, 
not  only  the  basis  on  which  the  existence  of  the  communi- 
ty depends,  but  the  source  from  whence  the  wealth  of 
the  community  is  derived. 

The  prince  and  the  peasant  are  both  fed,  clothed  and 
warmed  from  the  field.  The  arts  and  sciences  are  alike 
supported  by  the  labours  of  the  Husbandman  ;  and  the 
merchant  derives  all  his  wealth  from  the  exchange  of  the 
productions  of  different  countries  :  all  are  the  productive 
labours  of  the  cultivator,  and  the  common  bounties  of  our 
parent  Earth.  Husbandry  is,  therefore,  not  only  the  most 
ancient,  and  most  honourable  employment,  but  the  most  in- 
dependent ;  and  yields  the  greatest  quantum  of  enjoyment 
to  the  industrious  sons  of  labour. 

These  facts  being  settled,  let  us  examine  the  science  of 
husbandry,  and  draw  from  thence  such  a  system  of  prac- 
tice, as  shall  enable  us  to  cultivate  and  manage  all  the 
variety  of  soils  to  the  best  advantage,  and  draw  from  them 
the  greatest  amount  in  a  given  time,  with  the  least  possible 
expense,  and  yet  preserve  the  strength  and  fertility  of  the 
soil.  This  is  not  only  the  true  art,  but  the  whole  mystery 
of  fiirming. 

We  are  all  sensible  that  two  great  evils  have  uniformly 
obstructed  the  attainment  of  this  great  object ;  the  one  is, 
when  the  farmer  runs  too  hastily  into  new  and  visionary 
schemes  ;  and  the  other,  when  he  adheres  too  obstinately 
to  such  old  practices  as  are  obviously  bad.  The  design 
of  {hb  work  is,  to  correct,  as  far  as  possible,  both  of  these 


INTRODUCTION. 

errors,  by  exhibiting  a  plain  practical  system  of  farming, 
derived  from  the  best,  and  most  approved  practical  Mrriters, 
and  cultivators  ;  together  with  my  own  practical  expe- 
rience for  more  than  thirty  years. 

I  have  arranged  this  treatise  in  monthly  order,  em- 
bracing j^he^gevepal<fe5C!'iptions  of  husbandry  that  belong 
to  eachfhipqrth,  tpvjwable  Jshe^practical  farmer,  at  one  view, 
to  derive  tfie^reat<^^t^dv^ntage' from  stich  truths  as  may 
be  fbuhi^  ;isse»f|ii!.  /  ^6  m\;piye'^9  this  the  more  forcibly,  I 
have'  introduced  'eacK  month  with  a  general  recapitulation 
of  such  improvements  as  should  have  been  made,  or  such 
labours  as  should  h»ve  beeo  performed  the  preceding 
m^ntb 


THE 


FARMER'S  l\|A?JyA/L,  kc 


»&::^;f::^< 


MARCH. 


You  have  now  collected  your  wood  and  fencing  stuft 
for  the  next  season;  your  hemp  and  fla^  are  in  great 
forwardness,  and  your  threshing  w^as  all  closed  early 
in  February.  You  have  cut  your  scions  for  grafting. 
Cut  up  your  wood,  and  house  it,  or  pile  it  up  for  the 
summer,  and  next  winter ;  the  difference  in  the  sav- 
ing, between  green  and  dry,  or  seasoned  wood,  will 
nearly  pay  the  expense  of  sleding,  besides  the  extra 
trouble  of  kindling  fires ;  both  which  are  objects 
w^orthy  attention. 

If  you  have  neglected  to  sow  clover,  at  seed-time, 
upon  your  winter  grains,  you  may  now  sow  to  advan- 
tage, as  soon  as  the  ground  is  bare,  (the  sooner  the 
better,)  or  upon  a  light  snow — both  will  answer  well. 
You  may  harrow  down  your  corn-hills,  or  light  po- 
tatoe  grounds,  as  soon  as  the  surface  is  free  from  frost, 
and  sow  your  spring  rye,  it  will  generally  do  better, 
than  after  a  ploughing  as  late  as  the  first  of  May. 

Dress  with  stable,  compost,  hog-pen,  or  such  other 
well  rotted  manure  as  you  have,  such  grass  grounds  as 
you  have  neglected  in  autumn  ;  three  loads  now  may 
be  equal  to  two  then  ;  but  it  is  best  to  secure  a  good 
crop  even  now.  Your  winter-grain  should  now  be 
dressed  with  plaster,  if  it  was  neglected  at  seed-time  ; 
your  mowing  grounds,  which  are  unon  a  dry  soil, 
1^ 


6  THE    PARMER^S    MANUAt* 

will  pay  you  well  for  a  bushel  or  two  of  plaster,  or 
a  few  bushels  of  lime,  or  leached  ashes,  to  the  acre. 

Your  orchards  continue  to  claim  your  attention, 
finish  tfimin^  ^is.fast  a3^po|sible,  and  cart  or  sled  off 
the  brdsi^.' before  Ihe- ground  becomes  soft  and 
poachy-7-giy.e  to,  .each  ctr^e'Gl^  top-dressing  of  your 
best/,ciip;  Vfebte,';Qr,,c6n^post  manure;  your  fruit 
wilt  richly  repay,  besides  the  extra  profits  upon 
your  grass  under  your  trees,  whether  mowing  or  pas- 
ture, together  with  the  growth  of  your  trees.  No  far- 
mer ever  paid  too  much  attention  to  his  orchards,  nor 
probably  ever  will. 

Look  to  your  fences,  and  see  that  they  secure  your 
orchards,  grass  and  grain  lands  against  your  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  If  your  fences  are  bad,  you  have 
toiled  in  vaiii^;  all  is  at  hazard  ;  all  is  bad. 

Commence  setting  your  fruit  and  shade  trees ; 
these,  if  omitted  in  December,  generally  succeed 
best  (when  set  in  the  spring)  as  soon  as  the  frost 
is  out  of  the  ground.  Whenever  the  frost  will  per- 
mit, plough  your  hemp  and  flax  ground,  together 
with  such  land  as  you  design  for  peas.  Freqaent 
ploughings  gready  benefit  these  crops,  and  your  peas 
cannot  be  sown  too  early  to  prevent  the  effects  of 
the  bug,  and  insure  you  a  good  crop. 

Look  to  your  water-courses,  and  change  their  direc- 
tion, to  receive  the  benefit  of  the  spring  rains  ;  the 
frequent  changing  of  your  water-courses  will  render 
your  mowing  even,  and  prevent  one  part  from  becom- 
ing too  rank,  and  lodging,  before  the  other  part  is 
grown  fit  to  cut,  and  thiis  turn  to  your  best  profit,  that 
which  if  neglected,  would  become  waste  and  damage. 

Now  is  the  time  to  nurse  your  stock  with  pota- 
toes and  carrots  ;  and  even  your  cattle  and  cows  will 
pay  you  as  well  for  the  use  of  the  curry-comb  as 
your  horses,  and  if  you  nurse  them  well  in  the  spring, 
they  will  repay  you  with  interest  through  the  summer. 
Let  your  sheep  range  upon  your  old  stubble  fields, 
where  you  have  not  sown  clover  for  mowing — gveeu 


herbage  is  the  most  natural  feed  for  this  animal  at  this 
season ;  but  if  you  have  no  such  range,  potatoes  and 
carrots,  (not  turnips,)  may  be  used  as  a  substitute. 
Secure  them  carefully  against  your  grain,  mowing,  or 
young  clover  grounds,  which  you  design  for  mewing, 
the  damage  they  will  do  you  by  feeding  on  these, 
would  be  greater  than  they  could  repay. 

Some  farmers  complain  that  red  clover,  when  sown 
for  mowing  upon  their  orchard  grounds,  causes  the 
trees  to  wither  and  decay.  This  may  be  remedied  by 
sowing  plaster  of  Paris  upon  your  clover ;  your  or- 
chards will  flourish  as  well  as  upon  English  mowing ; 
one  bushel  to  the  acre  in  the  spring,  or  fall,  annually, 
will  answer.  It  is  of  no  consequence  to  inquire,  why 
a  crop  so  fertilizing  as  clover,  should  injure  the  or- 
chard, nor  why  the  plaster  should  prevent  it,  facts 
are  stubborn  things,  and  are  generally,  all  that  are  of 
importance  in  good  farming.  Others  have  found 
from  experience  that  red  clover  may  grow  to  ad- 
vantage upon  orchard  grounds,  without  injuring  the 
trees,  provided  the  clover  is  fed  off  before  it  blos- 
soms ;  and  thus  fertilize  their  orchard  grounds  by  feed- 
ing their  clover.  From  this  it  appears,  that  the  in- 
jury arises  from  the  heads,  or  blossonft  of  the  clover ; 
but  the  manner  in  which  the  blossom  produces  this 
effect,  is  again  inexplicable,  and  so  in  fact  are  all  the 
operations  of  nature.  One  useful  fact  that  shall  ena- 
ble the  farmer  to  produce  two  spires  of  grass  where 
only  one  had  grown  before,  is  of  more  real  value, 
than  a  whole  volume  of  nice  philosophical  disquisi- 
tions upon  the  operations  of  nature,  in  producing 
this  grass  ;  the  first  may  be  done  ;  but  the  latter  no 
man  ever  discovered,  and  probably  never  will. 

Ploughing. 

The  season  is  now    opening   to  commence   your 

ploughing;  every   farmer,   and    even    farmer's    boy, 

feels  as  if  he  knew  how  to  hold  and  drive  plough,  bet- 

;4er  than  the  man  who  writes  books ;  all  this  may  be 


8  THE    farmer's    manual. 

true ;  he  knows  that  he  should  never  turn  his  furrow 
wider  than  the  plough-share  will  cut  clean;  but  al- 
ways as  much  narrower,  as  the  stiffness  of  the  soil 
shall  render  necessary,  to  lay  his  furrows  smooth 
and  light,  and  free  from  clods ;  in  all  such  cases  of 
narrow  furrows,  the  extra  expense  of  ploughing,  will 
be  saved  in  the  expense  of  harrowing,  with  this  ad- 
vantage to  the  crop,  that  the  harrow  pulverizes  only 
the  surface  ;  but  the  plough,  when  properly  directed, 
renders  the  earth  mellow,  to  the  whole  depth  of  the 
furrow.  This  again  involves  the  question.  How  deep 
is  best  ?  To  this  I  shall  reply  particularly,  as  it  has 
become  one  of  the  most  important  questions  in  field 
husbandry.  When  you  turn  in  a  stifT,  or  clover  sward, 
for  corn,  or  potatoes,  let  your  plough  cut  to  the  depth 
of  8  or  10  inches,  if  the  substratum  is  not  an  im- 
penetrable substance;  you  will  thus  lay  the  founda- 
tion for  a  deep  soil  for  ever,  in  your  after  tillage. 
Your  corn,  or  potatoes,  wdien  planted,  will  lie  below 
the  dead  earth  raised  from  the  bottoms  of  your  fur- 
rows, and  will  strike  their  roots  into  the  rich  mould 
which  you  turned  down  from  the  surface.  The  sun, 
air,  and  rains,  together  with  such  manure  as  you  may 
apply,  either  iff  the  hill,  or  by  way  of  top-dressings, 
about  the  hills,  will  all  fertilize  the  dead  earth  so 
turned  up,  and  render  it  food  for  plants.  The  frosts 
of  the  next  winter  will  further  improve  this  dead  sur- 
face, and  thus,  by  the  next  season,  when  commixed 
with  the  original  mould,  by  a  deep  ploughing  of  the 
same  depth,  the  whole  will  become  a  deep,  rich,  and 
fertile  soil,  and  may  ever  afterward  be  ploughed  to  the 
same  depth  for  the  culture  of  any  crops.  The  same 
is  true,  in  a  degree,  of  stubble  grounds,  ploughed, 
or  ridged  in  in  the  summer,  after  harvest ;  or  of  tur- 
nip ground  fed  by  sheep,  or  of  clover,  or  buck- wheat 
grounds,  ploughed  in,  as  fertilizing  crops  ;  but  where 
you  plough  your  fallows  for  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley, 
or  turnips,  you  will  never  succeed  in  deepening  your 
soil  below  the  natural  mould,  unless  you  have  first 


THE    TARMER's    manual.  9 

begun  as  above ;  because  these  crops  strike  a  shallow 
root,  and  will  be  left  to  feed  on  the  dead  earth  which 
you  have  brought  up  to  the  surface.  These  are  the 
outlines,  or  first  principles  of  good  ploughing,  and 
the  minute  attention  of  every  farmer,  will  soon  dis- 
cover the  mode  which  shall  be  best  adapted  to  his  dif- 
ferent soils,  and  different  crops,  with  this  general  prin- 
ciple, to  deepen  his  soil  at  every  ploughing,  as  far 
as  the  nature  of  the  substratum,  or  under  soil,  and  the 
safety  of  his  crop  will  admit ;  and  in  this  way,  he  may 
soon  bring  his  farm  into  a  deep  tillage.  The  suc- 
cess of  one  half  of  any  one  of  his  fields,  under  a  re- 
gular deep  tillage,  compared  with  the  other  half  un- 
der a  shallow  tillage,  will  be  the  most  convincing  ar- 
gument in  favour  of  deep  ploughing,  that  can  be  laid 
before  the  practical  farmer,     fry  and  see. 

This  being  the  life  of  a  farm,  it  is  injpossible  to  be 
too  particular  in  improving  it.  I  shall  conclude  this 
article  with  the  following  remarks. 

1.  The  depth  of  your  soil  being  determined  as 
before,  plough  flat,  or  ridge,  directly  according  to 
the  nature  of  your  soil. 

2.  If  your  soil  is  naturally  dry,  plough  flat,  and 
as  level  as  possible,  this  will  give  an  equal  diffusion  of 
moisture  throughout  your  field  ;  but  if  your  soil  is 
moist,  plough  into  wide  ridges  of  18  to  34  feet,  and  if 
it  is  a  wet  soil,  let  your  ridges  not  exceed  6  to  12 
feet.  The  object  of  ridge  ploughing,  is  to  improve 
the  furrows  between  the  ridges,  as  drains  for  the  wa- 
ter, therefore  multiply  your  drains,  by  narrowing 
your  lands,  or  ridges,  according  to  the  moisture  of 
your  soil ;  and  so  vice  versa.  This  is  the  best,  if  not 
only  method  of  equalizing  moist  and  wet  lands. 

3.  In  ploughing  high  hills,  and  steep  acclivities,  it 
is  generally  practised  ta^^lough  directly  up  and  down, 
with  a  furrow  both  ways,  (up  and  down,)  this  is  at- 
tended with  two  evils;  1st,  it  is-verv,fa,tiguing  to  the 
team  to  carry  a  furrow  up  the  hill;  and  2a,  it  ex- 
poses the  lands  to  be  washed,  and  gullied  in  the  fur 
rows,  which  is  sometimes  ruinous. 


iO  THE    farmer's    MANUAL. 

4.  These  evils  may  be  remedied  by  carrying  a  fur- 
row down  the  hill  only,  and  by  inclining  this  furrow 
to  the  left  hand,  directly  in  proportion  to  the  descent 
of  the  declivity — and  suffering  the  team  to  re-ascend 
the  hill  without  a  furrow.  This  will  lessen  your  day's 
work,  not  one  half,  but  about  one  third,  because  your 
team  will  travel  so  much  faster,  both  up  and  down  the 
hill,  when  they  carry  but  one  furrow. — In  this  way, 
the  steepest  hills  may  be  ploughed  without  a  single 
furrow  left  open  to  the  wash,  except  the  last  one,  and 
the  saving  in  the  strength  of  the  team,  and  in  the 
value  of  the  crop,  which  will  arise  from  the  extra 
goodness  of  the  ploughing,  will  doubly  compensate 
for  the  loss  of  time.  In  this  way,  the  steepest  hills, 
on  w^hich  cattle  can  travel,  may  be  ploughed  to  a(K 
vantage,  by  striking  the  furrows  transversely,  or  in  a 
direction  inclined  to  the  left  hand,  directly  in  propor- 
tion to  the  steepness  of  the  declivity. 

5.  In  this  way,  one  third  or  one  half  the  strength 
of  team  will  perform  the  work. 

6.  Where  the  descent  is  gentle,  and  not  exposed  to 
wash,  let  your  ridges  range  exactly  with  the  descent, 
that  the  surplusage  of  moisture  may  pass  off  easy, 
and  regular,  in  the  furrows. 

7.  If  your  business  drives,  and  your  land  is  light, 
you  may  fully  compensate  for  the  loss  of  time  by 
widening  your  furrow  slice  ;  your  plough-share  will  cut 
one  fourth,  one  third,  or  even  one  half  more,  than  in 
ploughing  directly  up  and  down,  according  to  the 
steepness  of  the  declivity,  and  the  obliquity  of  your 
furrows. 

8.  All  this,  together  with  the  general  width  of  your 
furrow  slice,  must  depend  upon  the  judgment  of  the 
husbandman,  directed  by  the  quality  of  the  soil.  If 
the  soil  is  hard  and  stiff,  cut  narrow  ;  but  if  it  is  light 
and  loose^  cut  your  furrow  slice  as  wide  as  the  share 
will  cut  clean,  and  no  further;  all  beyond  this  is  cut, 
and  cover,  which  is  bad  ploughing. 

9.  Plough  all  your  lands  as  much  as  possible  when 


THE    farmer's    manual.  11 

the  dew  is  on,  in  the  morning,  especially  sandy,  or 
light  loamy  lands,  (when  ploughed  in  summer,)  and 
even  in  moist  weather,  if  the  season  is  dry  ;  but  as  a 
general  rule,  improve  a  dry  time,  both  for  your 
ploughing,  hoeing,  and  for  your  seed-time  ;  your  crops 
will  always  repay  your  attention,  some  extraordina- 
ries  in  your  soil  excepted,  and  the  surface  will  derive 
most  benefit  from  the  harrow  in  dry  weather. 

Harrowing* 

No  instrument  of  husbandry  requires  the  judg- 
ment of  the  farmer  more  than  the  harrow :  it  is  capa- 
ble of  doing  the  most  good,  and  hurt,  at  the  same  time, 
Qf  any  other   instrument. 

1.  The  harrow  in  field  husbandry,  answers  to  the 
rake  in  gardening,  and  cannot  be  made  to  pulverize 
your  tillage  lands  too  fine  5  but  if  this  is  done  after 
your  seeds  are  sown,  it  will  cover  them  often  too  deep, 
and  thus  injure  your  crop  ;  and  in  flax  and  hemp,  of- 
ten double  the  labour  and  expense  in  pulling  ;  and 
in  your  grass  seeds,  by  covering  too  deep,  will  destroy 
their  growth. 

2.  Make  it  a  general  rule  to  level,  and  pulverize, 
as  much  as  is  necessary  with  the  harrow,  before  you 
cast  your  seed,  and  then  cover  lightly  with  the  har- 
row, according  to  the  hardness,  or  stiffness  of  the  soil 
— when  the  lands  are  light,  once  over  will  answer ; 
but  when  they  are  stiff,  twice  may  be  necessary. 

Rolling, 

The  field  Roller  is  an  instrument  much  used  in 
Europe,  and  in  some  parts  of  our  own  country  ;  and  its 
good  effects  much  extolled  by  the  best  writers,  and 
upon  the  following  principles  ;  viz. 

1.  When  used  upon  sward  ground  broken  up  for 
corn,  it  compresses  the  furrows  to  the  earth  be- 
neath, and  thus  guards  the  corn  against  the  effects  of. 
droughts,  by  equalizing  moisture. 


12  THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL. 

2.  When  used  upon  a  stiff  soil,  it  breaks  the  clods, 
and  thus  pulverizes  that  surface  which  could  not  be 
done  with  the  harrow. 

3.  When  used  upon  stony  grounds  laid  down  to 
mowing,  it  presses  the  stones  into  the  earth  even  with 
the  surface,  at  the  same  time  that  it  breaks  the  clods, 
and  thus  prepares  the  way  for  the  sythe  in  a  cheap, 
and  easy  method. 

4.  When  used  upon  a  light,  sandy,  or  loamy  soil, 
at  seed  time,  it  gives  permanence,  and  consistence 
to  the  surface,  which  guards  against  drought. 

5.  When  used  in  the  spring  upon  such  winter 
grains  as  are  exposed  to  be  winter-killed,  by  the 
heaving  of  the  frosts,  it  presses  the  earth  to  their 
roots  and  thus  secures  the  crops. 

These  and  many  other  advantages  are  ascribed  to 
the  roller ;  but  upon  this  subject  I  have  no  expe- 
rience,—so  far  as  it  goes  to  break  clods  and  press 
in  stones,  it  will  doubtless  do  well. 

Remarks  on  the  General  Principles  of  Husbandry. 

1.  Whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  your  soil,  and 
situation  of  your  farm,  remember,  that  there  is  no  soil 
so  good,  but  it  may  be  exhausted,  and  ruined  by 
bad  tillage,  and  that  there  is  none  so  bad,  that  cannot 
be  rendered  fertile  by  good  tillage,  even  barren  heath, 
if  it  can  be  ploughed,  and  swarded. 

2.  The  true  art  of  husbandry  consists,  in  suffer- 
ing no  crop  to  grow  upon  your  land,  that  will  so  far  ex- 
haust your  soil,  as  to  lessen  the  value  of  your  succeed- 
ing crop,  whatever  profit  such  a  crop  may  afford  you. 

3i  To  avoid  this,  suffer  no  one  crop  to  grow  two 
years  successively,  upon  the  same  piece  of  ground, 
excepting  grass,  and  buckwheat,  without  the  fer- 
tilizing aid  of  rich  manures  to  support  the  strength 
of  the  soil;  and  even  then,  a  change  of  crops  will 
generally  do  best,  excepting  onions,  carrots,  and 
iiemp. 


THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL.  lo 

4.  Every  plant  derives  from  the  earth  for  its  growth, 
such  properties  as  are  peculiar  to  itself ;  this  plant, 
when  followed  successively  for  two  or  more  years 
upon  the  same  ground,  will  exhaust  the  soil  of  those 
properties  peculiar  to  itself,  without  lessening  its 
powers  to  produce  some  other  plants  ;  this  fact  is  most 
striking  in  the  article  of  flax,  w^hich  v/iil  not  bear  to 
be  repeated  oftener  than  once  in  seven  years,  and  is 
common  to  all  crops,  with  the  exception  of  those  no- 
ticed as  above. 

5.  To  avoid  this  evil,  arrange  your  farm  into  such 
divisions  as  will  enable  you  to  improve  all  the  varie- 
ty of  crops  your  lands  may  require,  in  such  regular 
succession,  as  to  form  a  rotine  of  5.  6,  or  7  years, 
according  to  the  nature,  quality,  and  situation  of  your 
farm. 

G.  This  method  will  make  poor  land  good,  and 
good  land  better.     Try  and  sec. 


APRIL, 

Semination. 

The  European  writers  make  very  nice  and  curious 
disquisitions  and  calculations  upon  the  drilling  sys- 
tem, and  generally  extol  and  condemn  the  practice 
at  the  same  time,  as  requiring  a  great  nicety  of  judg- 
ment, both  in  its  operation,  and  the  different  soils  on 
which  it  will,  and  will  not  answer.  I  shall  leave  them 
to  their  own  methods,  both  in  theory  and  practice,  and 
treat  this  subject  entirely  upon  the  broad  cast  plan. 

1.  Because  this  plan  answers  well,  and  our  com- 
mon seeds-men  can  sow  any  quantity  they  choose  to 
the  acre,  with  great  precision,  from  thre<^  quarts,  to 
three  bushels,  and  give  every  cast  its  due  proportion. 

2.  This  answers  best  on  both  smooth,  and  stony 
soils,  and  the  harrow  njay  be  made  to  answer  best, 
either  for  a  light,  or  deep  covering. 


J  4  THE    farmer'*    MAJ^UAL. 

3.  Weeds  will  not  so  readily  grow  upon  a  broad 
cast  seeding,  as  between  the  rows  upon  a  drill  seeding. 

4.  All  unnecessary  expense  of  tools  in  husbandry, 
goes  so  far  to  lessen  the  profits,  and  increase  the  cares 
of  the  farmer. 

5.  By  the  broad  cast  method,  the  seeds-man  can  best 
apportion  his  seed  to  his  diflerent  crops,  and  different, 
fields,  or  even  different  parts  of  the  same  field,  and 
this  mode  may  therefore  be  accounted  the  best. 

Peas. 

Plough  such  a  light  sand,  or  sandy  loam,  as  you  de- 
sign for  the  white,  green,  or  blue  boiling  pea,  as  early 
in  March,  or  April,  as  the  frosts  will  permit;  the 
earlier  the  better  ;  (once  will  generally  answer,)  and 
sow  your  peas  upon  the  furrows,  about  3  bushels  to 
the  acre,  and  cover  with  the  harrow.  Experience 
can  be  your  only  guide  whether  your  land  will  pro- 
duce good  boilers,  and  when  you  have  proved  which 
fields  will  answer  for  this  pea,  you  may  always  culti- 
vate it  with  success  in  the  regular  succession  of  your 
crops,  and  with  a  good  profit,  because  the  pea  does 
not  exhaust  your  soil. 

Peas  when  sown  early  in  April,  with  oats,  or  in  May 
with  beans,  say  one  bushel  of  each  to  the  acre,  come 
forward  early,  and  give  a  handsome  profit,  to  bring 
forward  your  hogs  in  summer,  and  thus  save  your 
corn  in  autumn  for  the  profits  of  a  spring  market. 

This  crop  may  be  mown,  and  threshed  in  the  com- 
mon mode,  and  the  straw  will  answer  both  for  winter 
feed  for  young  stock,  and  litter  for  your  horses  and 
cattle,  or  perhaps  to  a  better  profit,  as  litter  for  your 
hogs  in  summer ;  such  litter  will  enable  you  to  cart 
in  an  extra  quantity  of  rich  earth  into  your  hogs 
pen,  and  thus  increase  the  quantity  of  this  best  of 
manure. 

Sow  flax  and  oats  as  early  in  this  month  as  possi- 
ble, seed  with  2  to  3  bushel  of  seed  upon  a  strong 
soil.     Begin  to  plant  potatoes. 


THE    l!\\K.\iKK's    MANUAL.  )  : 

MAY. 

Beans, 

Plough  in  May,  or  early  in  June,  such  lands  as  you 
Uesign  to  plant  with  beans  ;  your  poor  sand,  or  sandy, 
or  gravelly  loams  will  answer  ;  provided  you  wet  your 
beans,  and  roll  them  in  plaster,  at  planting.  Set  your 
rows  two  and  a  half  feet  distance,  and  your  hills  from 
one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  distance  in  the  rows,  and 
seed  with  5  beans  in  a  hill;  the  crop  will  always  pay 
you  well,  both  as  a  tillage,  and  a  fallow  crop  for 
wheat,  or  rye,  provided  your  bean  lands  can  bear  those 
crops,  with  the  aid  of  plaster,  or  such  other  dress- 
ings, by  the  stronger  manures,  as  you  can  give  them. 
Under  this  head  I  will  insert  an  extract  from  the  New- 
York  Daily  Advertiser  upon  the  Heligoland  Eean. 

*'  A  friend  of  mine  handed  me  the  following  inter- 
esting account  of  the  Heligoland  bean.  I  am  induced 
to  make  it  public  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  have 
possessed  themselves  of  some  of  this  valuable  article. 
They  appear  peculiarly  calculated  for  the  Northern 
States,  and  I  have  no  doubt  will  prove  an  advantage- 
ous substitute  for  corn,  where  frost  is  apt  to  injure 
the  crop.  A  small  quantity  have  been  sent  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  New- York,  by 
J.  Barclay  of  London  ;  they  arrived  a  few  weeks  since, 
and  have  been  distributed  in  various  parts  of  the  State." 

'^  The  merits  of  those  beans  consist  in  their 
extraordinary  prolific  quality,  their  perfect  fulness 
of  form  and  thinness  of  skin,  and  in  their  ripen- 
ing much  sooner  than  the  common  sorts  ;  they  are 
short  in  their  straw,  and  the  pods  which  grow  in 
bunches,  commence  very  near  the  ground.  They 
will  succeed  on  soil  not  considered  stifi' enough  for 
the  common  bean,  and  have  produced  generally,  with- 
out  extra  manure,  from  64  to  80  bushels  the  acre. 

"  Xi  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of 
Wiltshire,  held  at  Devizes,  July  20th,  1814,  Mr.  Phil- 
lips produced   two  stalks,  which  had  on  them  two 


to  TriE  farmer's  manual. 

pods,  yielding  490  beans.  In  the  spring  of  iSl;i; 
Mr.  Phillips  planted  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  these 
beans,  on  half  an  acre  of  land,  (a  poor  day,)  at  one 
ploughing,  without  manure,  and  they  produced  the  as- 
tonishing quantity  of  52  bushels,  Winchester  measure. 
''  Several  stalks  of  these  beans  were  produced,  and 
the  Committee  declared  them  to  be  infinitely  superior, 
in  point  of  productiveness  and  quality,  to  any  other 
sort  ever  introduced  into  the  country,  and  felt  it  their 
duty  to  recommend  them  not  only  to  their  own  mem- 
bers;  but  to  the  public  at  large,  who  they  were  cer- 
tain would  derive  great  benefit  from  their  introduc- 
tion/'*-—A'ero-  York  paper, 

#  Remarks.  ^ 

The  value  of  the  white  field  bean  has  been  general- 
ly known  and  approved  in  our  country,  both  for  the 
table  and  for  stock,  particularly  for  sheep  and  hogs ; 
but  the  improvement  of  the  Heligoland  bean  as  above, 
surpasses  any  thing  of  the  kind  heretofore  known, 
and  will  give  an  additional  value  to  our  tillage,  and 
to  our  farms,  in  facilitating  the  means  of  increasing 
our  stock  of  pork,  and  thus  increasing  our  stock  of 
the  very  best  manure. — Beans  have  generally  been 
admitted  as  a  good  fallow  crop,  in  keeping  the 
ground  clean  without  exhausting  the  soil ;  but  it  has 
been  a  serious  objection  to  beans  as  a  fallow  crop, 
that  they  ripen  too  late,  and  thus  delay  the  sowing  of 
the  winter  grains  beyond  the  proper  seed  time,  to  the 
damage  of  the  crop. — This  objection,  when  true, 
is  a  serious  one  ;  but  this  it  is  now  found  may  be  ob- 
viated by  cutting  off  the  top  of  the  bean  vines,  as 
soon  as  the  first  blossoms  begin  to  drop;  but  not 
before,  as  they  will  sprout  again. 

For  the  truth  of  this  remark,  I  am  indebted  to  Sir 
JohnSinclair,  who  states,  that  the  practice  was^ntro- 
duccd  into  field  husbandry  by  John  I^owthcr,  Esq. 
M,  P.  through  his  Bailiff,  or  overseer,  George  Lane, 


THE    FARMEa^S    MANUAL.  17 

who  had  been  a  Gardener,  and  that  in  ia04,  more  than 
200  acres  had  been  tested  by  this  experiment,  at  an  ex- 
pense of  about  3  shillings  per  acre,  and  that  as  soon  as 
the  tops  were  cutoff,  the  pods  began  to  sw^l,  and  in- 
crease in  their  size,  and  that  the  period  of  ripening 
was  generally  accelerated  at  least  a  fortnight. 

The  fact  above  stated  is  of  the  highest  importance, 
because  it  goes  to  secure  the  bean  crop  amongst  the 
fallow  crops,  with  a  handsome  profit^  on  its  culture, 
W'ithout  injury  to  the  soil,  or  the  after  crop.  To  be 
able  to  select  the  soil  which  is  best  adapted  to  the 
crop  you  wish  to  cultivate,  and  to  prepare  this  soil  by 
manure  and  tillage  to  the  best  advantage,  and  thus 
by  a  regular  process  to  bring  your  crop  to  its  highest 
productive  state  of  perfection,  is  truly  a  very  import- 
ant part  of  good  farming  ;  but  it  is  only  a  part.  To 
combine  the  cultivation  of  crops  with  a  regular  suc- 
cession of  other  crops,  so  that  each  in  succession 
shall  yield  the  greatest  possible  product,  with  ihe 
least  possible  expense,  and  yet  raise  the  productive 
value  of  your  soil,  constitutes  a  second  part  of  good 
farming  ;  but  the  great  art  of  the  whole  is  in  dispos- 
ing of  these  crops  in  such  a  manner  as  shall  insure  the 
greatest  aggregate  value  to  the  farm,  and  the  stock, 
and  secure  the  greatest  and  most  permanent  annual 
revenue  ;  this  comprises  the  most  difficult,  and  im- 
portant art  of  good  farming.  All  these  combined ; 
the  fallow  crops  are  calculated  to  produce,  particular- 
ly the  potatoe,  and  the  Heligoland  bean,  not  except- 
ing the  white  bean,  particularly  the  1000  for  one,  (so 
called.)  The  Bean  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as 
the  eye  has  attained  a  deep  colour,  or  the  leaf  turned 
yellow,  and  cured  in  the  nicest  manner  ;  it  may  be 
housed,  or  threshed  in  the  field,  if  the  weather  is  fair. 

Gypsum. 

No  one  article  of  rural  economy  has  proved  so  use- 
ful, and  no  one  has  excited  so  much  speculation  and 
2* 


18  THE    FARMEP.'S    MANUAL* 

inquiry,  as  Gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris.  Whcii 
it  was  first  introduced,  its  immediate  effects  were  so 
striking  as  to  excite  alarm  ;  and  it  was  soon  pronounc- 
ed a  dangoious  drainer  of  the  soil,  or  present  benefit, 
attended  with  an  after  evil ;  a  manure  that  would  make 
rich  fathers,  and  poor  sons  ;  this  alarm  has  in  some 
measure  subsided,  (though  not  altogether,)  and  this 
most  valuable  enlivener  of  vegetation  is  now  coming 
into  general  use. 

The  nice  investigations  of  the  learned  Dr.  Davy, 
have  proved  Gypsum  to  be  the  most  natural  food 
for  plants,  of  all  the  manures  in  use  ;  by  show- 
ing by  a  chymical  analysis,  that  Gypsum  is  the 
only  substance  taken  into  circulation  in  its  pure 
state,  and  forming  a  component  part  of  vegetable 
substances.  This  fact  being  proved,  and  disclosed 
by  so  high  an  authority,  has  led  to  further  inquiry  into 
the  modus  opperandi — or  the  manner  in  which  this 
is  done. 

Chymists  reason  thus  ; — Gypsum  will  not  dissolve 
i'n  less  than  five  hundred  times  its  weight  of  pure 
water,  therefore  it  cannot  enter  the  bodies  of  plants 
by  solution  ;  and  again,  it  cannot  be  by  solution,  be- 
cause this  would  destroy  its  being,  and  it  would  be 
no  longer  found  in  the  plants  in  its  .pure  state.  One 
of  the  properties  of  plaster  i's,  that  it  may  easily  be 
reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  and  thus  taken  up 
ioto  the  circulation  of  plants — hence  the  general  re- 
mark, tlie  finer  the  better,  as  a  manure.  Another 
of  the  properties  of  plaster  is,  that  by  a  moderate  heat, 
it  readily  passes  into  a  state  of  calcination  ;  becomes 
liquid,  and  boils  like  water.  This  is  also  a  test  of 
its  quality — the  best  will  most  easily  calcine  ;  and  in 
that  state  it  imparts  to  the  tongue  the  stythtic  sensa- 
tion of  quicklime.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some,  that 
under  this  operation,  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  Gypsum 
becomes  an  exciter  of  vegetation,  passes  into,  and 
forms  a  component  part  of  plants.  Another  proper- 
ty of  Gypsum   is,  that  by   chymical  analysis   it   is 


THE    farmer's    MANUAiL,  i^ 

found  to  be  composed  of  sulpher,  oxygen,  and  lime,  as 
its  most  essential  properties  ;  these  being  the  first  prin- 
ciples, or  most  powerful  exciters,  or  promoters  of  ve- 
getation, give  to  this  substance  the  first  rank  in  the 
system  of  rural  economy. 

All  the  experiments  which  have  been  made  with 
this  first  of  manures,  unless  upon  a  cold,  dead,  w^et 
soil,  have  gone  fully  to  prove,  that  Gypsum  is  not  only 
the  best,  but  the  cheapest  manure,  and  most  to  be 
depended  upon,  for  general  use,  of  all  the  manures. 

Oxygen  is  the  great  vivifying  principle  in  the  animal 
world,  and  is  therefore  styled,  by  way  of  distinction, 
vital  air.  This  vital  air  composes  28  parts  of  a  hun- 
dred of  atmospheric  air,  and  thus  gives  life,  not  only 
to  the  animal,  but  to  the  vegetable  world.  Abstract, 
or  remove  these  28  parts  of  vital  air  from  the  atmos- 
j)herc,  and  neither  animals,  nor  vegetables  can  live 
an  instant ;  they  both  die.  Animals  inhale  the  vital, 
or  oxygen  air  into  the  lungs,  this  commixes  with  the 
blood,  and  gives  that  florid,  or  vermilion  hue  to  the 
blood  in  the  lungs,  and  thus  passes  into  circulation, 
giving  vigour,  life,  and  energy  to  the  whole  system, 
and  again  passes  off  through  the  secretions  of  the 
body,  aqd  commixes  with  common  air.  It  is  a  well 
known  fact  that  the  foliage  of  plants  and  trees,  pro- 
duces in  constant  succession,  and  emits  into  circula- 
tion, this  vital,  or  oxygen  air,  and  of  course  it  must 
i'ollow,  that  by  the  inhaling  vessels,  both  of  the 
roots,  trunk,  branches,  and  foliage,  this  oxygen,  or 
vital  air  is  admitted  into  circulation,  and  becomes 
the  essential,  or  vital  principle  of  vegetation. 

Whatever  renders  the  earth  loose,  so  as  to  admit  a 
free  circulation  of  air  to  the  roots  of  plants,  will  best 
promote  the  great  system  of  the  economy  of  nature, 
and  thus  render  it  active  and  vigorous,  by  the  free 
circulation  of  vital  or  oxygen  air;  the  same  as  in 
the  animal  world.  Whatever  causes  the  greatest  de- 
gree of  fermentation,  when  buried  in  the  earth,  best 
promotes  this  economy  of  nature,  by  rendering  the 


20  THE 

earth  loose,  for  the  free  admission,  and  circulation  of 
air  and  moisture,  and  thus  by  their  chymical  combi- 
nation promotes  the  growth,  and  forms  the  substances 
of  plants  and  trees ;  hence  the  reason  why  animal 
substances  produce  the  best  effects  in  the  promotion  of 
vegetation,  because  they  cause  the  greatest  degrees 
of  fermentation,  in  their  dissolution  ;  and  hence  the  rea- 
son why  the  groulh  of  trees  and  plants  never  exhausts, 
or  diminishes,  the  weight  of  earth  in  which  they  grow. 

Electricity  has  its  full  share  in  producing  the 
above  effects,  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  ;  but  not  upon  the  same  principles  of  oxy- 
gen, because  electricity  is  the  most  subtle  and 
powerful  of  all  substances,  and  pervades  with  equal 
ease  all  bodies,  whether  hard  or  soft :  not  so  with 
oxygen,  it  cannot  commix  with  the  earth,  and  thus 
become  food  for  the  roots  of  plants,  any  further  thaa 
this  earth  is  rendered  light,  or  pervious,  for  the  admis- 
sion of  common  air;  hence  the  reason  why  frequent 
ploughings,  and  fermenting  substances  promote  ve- 
getation ;  hence  the  reason  why  plaster,  when  mixed 
with  the  seeds  which  are  planted  in  the  earth,  gives 
the  greatest  vigour  to  vegetation  ;  because  it  imparts, 
both  its  oxygen,  and  substance,  to  the  absorbant  ves- 
sels of  the  roots,  and  thus  stimulates  the  vital  princi- 
ples of  those  plants. 

All  this  is  true  as  far  as  it  goes,  and  yet  all  this 
without  the  heat  of  the  sun,  amounts  to  nothing  ;  and 
all  this  combined  with  the  heat  of  the  sun,  amounts 
to  but  very  little,  without  the  light  of  the  sun  :  but 
the  rays  of  light  from  the  sun  are  not  oxygen,  nor  elec- 
tricity, and  yet  they  constitute  one  of  the  essential 
causes  of  vegetation,  yet  what  effects  they  produce, 
and  hozo  they  produce  them,  are  altogether  concealed 
from  our  research,  therefore  !  conclude  as  before,  that 
one  fact  in  good  husbandry  is  worth  two  hypo- 
theses. 

Experience  has  proved  Gypsum  to  be  one  of  the 
best  manures,  and  taught  us  how  to  use  it. 


THE  farmer's  majjual.  2\ 

From  the  Pennsylvania  Farmer* 

^-  Mr.  Holbrook  op  Derby. 

''  I  have  used  Gypsum,  or  plaster,  for  several  year^, 
as  a  manure.  I  have  put  many  tons  of  it  upon  my 
own  land,  and  have  furnished  my  neighbours  v/ith  it, 
both  they,  and  I,  have  derived  great  benefits  from  it. 
One  of  my  neighbours  sowed  a  quaatity  upon  his  up- 
land mowing,  and  his  crop  of  grass  was  greatly  bet- 
tered, as  well  as  increased  to  three  times  as  much  as 
the  crop  upon  his  adjoining  land.  I  dressed  a  piece 
of  land  with  it,  on  part  of  which  I  used  to  spread  a 
run  of  water.  Where  the  water  was  spread,  I  could 
not  perceive  that  I  derived  the  least  advantage  from 
the  plaster,  but  the  other  part  of  the  field  produced 
white  clover  in  abundance.  1  had  four  times  the 
quantity  of  hay  in  proportion  from  the  land  dressed 
with  the  plaster,  that  I  had  from  the  land  adjoining, 
on  which  none  had  been  put ;  and  the  land  on  w^hich 
the  plaster  was  put  had  no  advantage  over  the  other; 
but  merely  what  it  derived  from  the  plaster. 

**  In  the  year  1790, 1  dressed  my  land  with  plaster  on 
which  my  wheat  was  sowed.  I  could  not  perceive,  at 
any  time,  that  the  w^heat  derived  the  least  advantage 
from  it.  In  September  1791,1  sowed  rye,  and  in  April 
1792  I  sowed  clover.  The  rye  appeared  to  receive 
but  little  advantage  ;  but  the  clover  was  fine  and  was 
materially  benefited.  In  1793,  the  crop  of  clover 
was  very  good.  In  1795,  I  sowed  the  same  piece 
with  rye,  and  had  a  very  good  crop.  Whether  the 
plaster  sown  in  1791,  benefited  the  rye,  or  whether 
it  was  through  the  assistance  of  the -clover  that  the 
crop  was  so  much  improved,  I  am  unable  to  say; 
but  I  am  persuaded  that  I  never  did  before  receive  so 
great  benefit  to  my  wheat  or  rye,  from  the  same  quan- 
tity of  clover,  as  my  crop  now  received  from  some 
cause.  In  1 796, 1  sowed  it  with  rye,  and  harvested  in 
1797;  but  perceived  no  difference  between  this  part 


52  THE    TARMER^S    MANUAL. 

of  my  field,  and  that  on  which  no  plaster  had  been 
sown. 

"  In  September  1791  ^  I  dressed  with  plaster  a  field 
of  clover  which  was  sown  in  1 790  ;  but  no  rain  fell 
in  a  long  time.  I  received  no  benefit  from  it.  In 
September  1791,  I  strewed  plaster  upon  part  of  my 
wheat  fallow,  and  ploughed  it  in,  but  cannot  say  that 
my  wheat  received  any  benefit.  In  1793,  I  planted 
the  field  with  indian  corn,  and  put  a  quantity  of  stable 
dung  on  that  part  of  the  field  which  had  r-ot  been 
dressed  with  plaster,  and  left  a  small  adjoining  cor- 
ner on  which  I  put  nothing.  That  part  dressed  with 
plaster  in  1791,  was  much  better  than  that  on  which 
no  manure  had  been  put,  and  as  good  as  that  recently 
manured  v/ith  stable  dung.  In  1794,  I  sowed  the 
field  with  barley  and  clover.  I  could  discover  no 
benefit  derived  from  it  to  the  barley,.but  soon  after 
the  barley  was  taken  ofl*,  the  clover  on  that  part  of 
the  field  dressed  with  gypsum,  appeared  much  better 
than  any  part  of  the  field  which  had  been  dressed 
with  stable  dung.  The  soil  was  a  brown  loam,  mix- 
ed with  a  ragged  slate-stone. 

''  In  April  1792,  I  dressed  part  of  a  dry  spire-grass 
meadow  with  plaster,  just  before  a  rain  ;  it  produced 
a  fine  growth  of  white  clover,  and  much  increased  the 
natural  grass.  I  judged  my  crop  was  double  to  that 
produced  upon  the  adjoining  field,  which  had  been 
manured.  In  1793,  the  product  was  equally  great. 
In  1794  the  effects  were  apparently  gone. 

*'  In  April  1792,  I  dressed  two  adjoining  pieces  of 
spire-grass  meadows :  one  with  unleached  ashes,  the 
other  with  plaster ;  they  both  produced  a  fine  growth 
of  clover ;  that  dressed  with  ashes  I  thought  had 
some  little  the  preference;  but  in  1793,  that  dressed 
with  plaster  had  manifestly  the  preference. 

"  In  April  1795,  I  dressed  a  part  of  a  poor  field, 
w^hich  lay  for  pasture  ;  but  bore  litde,  except  five- 
finger.  It  was  thin  poor  land.  I  discovered  no 
effects  until  September,  when  w^hite  clover  began  to 


illE    FAUMER\S    MANUAL. 


appear;  and  before  winter,  there  was  a  material  dif- 
ference between  this  and  the  other  part  of  the  field. 
In  May  i796,  I  ploughed  the  field  for  buckwheat 
and  turnips,  and  sowed  it  in  July,  extending  into  the 
part  which  had  not  been  dressed  with  plaster.  There 
was  a  great  difterence  between  that  part  of  the  field 
on  which  the  gypsum  had  been  applied,  and  the  part 
on  which  there  had  been  none ;  both  in  the  buck- 
wheat and  turnips.  The  part  dressed  with  plaster 
produced  nearly  double  to  that  which  had  not  been 
dressed,  in  1797,  I  planted  the  field  with  potatoes  ; 
they  appeared  to  derive  some  advantage  from  the 
gypsum  ;  but  it  was  not  great. 

"  In  the  month  of  April  1 795, 1  dressed  with  plaster 
part  of  a  field  covered  with  a  turf  of  natural  grass  ; 
in  September  the  clover  appeared  amongst  the  natu- 
ral grass.  In  April  1796,  the  difference  between  that 
dressed,  and  that  not  dressed,  was  apparent.  I  then 
ploughed  the  whole  in  ridges  for  indian  corn  ;  on  part 
of  the  field  I  put  plaster  before  the  first  hoeing ;  on  a 
part  soon  after  the  first  hoeing  ;  and  a  small  part  was 
ploughed  and  planted  without  any  plaster  ;  and  that 
part  of  the  field  on  which  I  put  plaster  in  1795,  I  left 
without  applying  any  thing.  In  a  short  time,  the  part 
of  the  field  on  which  the  plaster  had  been  put  in  1795, 
appeared  to  have  the  advantage,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  summer,  the  difference  could  be  discerned  at  a 
very  great  distance.  At  harvest  I  thought  1  had  dou- 
ble the  quantity  of  corn  on  the  land  dressed  in  1795, 
that  I  had  on  that  dressed  in  1 796,  though  the  crop  in 
this  appeared  greatly  benefited.  The  land  which  was 
not  dressed  at  all,  did  not  yield  more  than  half  as  much 
as  the  land  dressed  in  the  hills  of  corn  with  the  plaster 
in  1796,  and  not  more  than  one  fourth  as  much  as  that 
dressed  with  plaster  upon  the  sward  in  1795.  In  1797, 
1  put  a  bushel  of  plaster  upon  an  acre  of  this  field,  be- 
fore planting ;  then  planted  all  the  field  with  indian 
corn  and  put  plaster  in  the  hills  ;  except  upon  the  acre 
as  above  j  at  harvest  I  could  discover  no  essential  dif- 
ference. 


24  THE    farmer's    manual. 

"  In  April  1797, 1  dressed  part  of  a  spire-grass  mea- 
dow with  plaster,  there  then  being  a  light  snow  upon 
the  ground,  which  soon  went  off:  ten  or  twelve  days 
after,  I  dressed  the  other  part  of  the  meadow  with  plas- 
ter ;  there  was  soon  a  material  difference  between  the 
two  parts,  and  it  continued  through  the  season.  The 
part  first  dressed  received  much  the  most  benefit. 

''  From  my  experiments  1  have  found  that  scatter- 
ing gypsum  over  the  whole  land  was  better  than 
putting  it  upon  the  hills  of  corn  ;  that  my  pastures 
have  been  greatly  improved  by  it,  and  that  when 
I  have  ploughed  them  afterwards,  on  which  plas- 
ter had  been  strewed,  the  crops  and  grasses  have  de- 
rived more  benefit  from  the  plaster,  than  if  it  were 
applied  the  same  year  that  the  crops  and  grasses 
were  sowed.  The  land  on  which  1  have  used  plas- 
ter is  loamy.  My  neighbours  have  derived  much  be- 
nefit from  it  upon  their  sandy  river  land.  I  have 
been  as  successful  with  the  Nova-Scotia  plaster  as  with 
any,  and  think  it  as  good  as  the  European.  I  used 
to  put  as  much  as  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  I  now 
do  not  apply  more  than  two,  and  I  am  persuaded  that 
two  bushels  answer  as  well  as  three.  I  have  never 
used  so  good,  and  cheap  manure  as  the  plaster,  and  I 
look  upon  my  land  as  double  in  value  by  its  discove- 
ry." 

I  have  extracted  this  report  of  Mr.  Holbrooks  at 
large,  because  it  goes  to  prove  with  more  nicety,  and 
precision,  the  real  value,  as  w^ell  as  the  true,  and  best 
methods  of  using  Gypsum,  of  any  series  of  experi- 
ments that  I  have  seen.  The  fact  that  plaster  sown 
upon  grass,  or  even  pasture  lands,  gives  an  immediate 
profit,  is  of  importance ;  but  that  the  same  lands 
when  ploughed  for  tillage,  two  or  three  years  after- 
ward give  an  additional  value  to  the  crops  from  the 
plaster  thus  sown,  is  doubly  useful,  both  from  its  im- 
mediate, and  subsequent  effects  :  this  is  reaping  the 
profits  of  the  manure  twice  over,  and  is  an  undoubted 
evidence  of  its  durability.     Whoever  reads  this  re- 


THE    farmer's    manual.  25 

port  of  Mr.  Holbrook,  can  never  doubt  of  the  value 
and  utility  of  Gypsunij  when  properly  applied  as  a 
manure. 


APRIL. 

Your  hemp  and  flax  are  all  dressed ;  your  wood 
cut  and  housed,  or  piled  up ;  and  your  sleds  housed 
safe  for  the  next  winter.  Your  orchards  are  all  prun* 
ed,  and  the  brush  removed  and  cut  up  for  summer's 
use.  Your  fences  are  in  great  forwardness  ;  your 
mowing-grounds  are  dressed  from  your  barn-yards, 
and  your  hemp,  flax,  oats  and  barley  grounds,  to- 
gether with  your  spring-rye,  and  wheat  lands,  now 
claim  your  attention.  This  is  one  of  the  most  impor^ 
tant  months  of  the  twelve,  for  the  farmer.  Harrow 
down  your  ridges  ;  plough  and  cross-plough  for  your 
hemp,  flax  and  barley,  and  dress  after  the  first 
plougfiing  with  well  rotted  manure  from  your  stables, 
barn-yard,  or  hog-pens,  at  the  rate  of  10,  16,  or  20 
loads  to  the  acre,  according  to  circumstances,  and 
sow  from  two  to  three  bushels  to  the  acre,  of  each, 
and  harrow  in  the  seed,  not  upon  the  furrows,  this  will 
bury  your  seed  to  deep;  but  upon  a  surface  made 
smooth  and  even  by  the  harrow.  Your  land  cannot 
be  pulverized  too  much  with  the  harrow  after  your 
seed  is  sown.  Your  wheat  two  bushels,  and  rye  one 
and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre  will  do  best;  when 
dressed  with  plaster,  one,  two,  or  three  bushels  to  the 
acre,  or  with  lime  or  leached  ashes,  sown,  and  har- 
rowed  in  with  the  grain.  Your  crops  will  be  more 
secure  against  the  rust,  and  blast,  and  smut,  than 
when  sown  upon  the  stronger  manures,  especially  if 
soaked  in  a  strong  pickle  of  sea-salt,  or  saltpetre, 
linsed  clean,  and  rolled  in  plaster,  or  live  ashes, 
when  sown.  Plaster  and  ashes  answer  well,  also! 
when  sown  upon  your  hemp,  flax,  barley  and  oats.' 


-G  THE    PARMER^S    MANUAL, 

The  time  of  sowing  all  your  spring  grains  will  de- 
pend much  upon  the  season,  with  this  general  rule, 
the  earlier  the  better,  with  proper  security  against 
frosts;  be  sure  to  catch  a  dry  seed-time  if  possible, 
the  difference  in  the  value  of  your  crop,  will  richly 
repay  a  strict  attention  to  this  part  of  good  farming. 
Hemp  will  do  to  be  repeated  successively,  for  many 
years,  with  high  manuring  ;  but  all  the  other  crops  as 
above,  should  be  sown  after  corn,  or  potatoes,  or 
upon  stubble  land,  ridged  in  in  the  fall,  and  perfect- 
ly free  from  weeds,  or  their  seeds,  or  upon  turnip 
grounds  after  stubble.  Select  a  warm  rich  piece  of 
ground  near  your  dwelling,  of  1,  2,  3,  or  4  roods,  ren^ 
der  it  rich  with  horse  or  hog  manure ;  plant  this  with 
English  white  potatoes,  they  will  answer  to  begin  to 
dig  in  July  ;  these,  when  steamed,  or  boiled,  will  serve 
3or  early  food  for  your  hogs,  and  bring  them  forward 
for  early  pork,  and  save  your  corn  in  the  fall.  1  can 
say  that  4  pigs,  which  averaged  27lbs.  in  the  middle 
of  July,  by  this  mode  of  feeding,  averaged  ISOlbs. 
at  Christmas  following,  with  a  very  triPie  of  corn, 
excepting  the  last  month,  they  then  had  corn  altoge- 
ther, to  harden  the  pork.  This  w^ill  be  found  one  of 
ihe  cheapest  modes  of  bringing  forw^ard  pork-hogs. 
it'  the  expense  of  fuel  in  boiling  is  an  objection,  let 
it  be  remembered,  that  one  or  two  gallons  of  water 
are  sufficient  to  steam  a  hogshead  of  potatoes,  if  they 
can  be  placed  over  the  steam,  and  covered  with  bran, 
or  lndian«meal,  which  is  perfectly  dry,  of  4  or  5 
inches  thick,  so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
steam :  before  one  gallon  of  water  is  exhausted,  the 
whole  hogshead  will  be  boiled  fit  for  the  table  ;  let 
diese  be  mixed  in  your  swill-barrel,  or  tub,  with  the 
bran,  or  Indian-meal,  and  placed  near  your  hog-pen 
for  ready  use  ;  a  good  pen  full  of  fat  hogs  in  the  fall, 
makes  the  purse  and  the  family  rich  through  the 
year;  and  the  rich  manure  they  will  afford  you,  with 
a  little  attention  in  carting  in  earth  and  litter,  will  in- 
:rease  your  next  crops  more  than  the  hogs  expend- 


THfi    farmer's    manual. 


27 


«d  in  their  fattening  ;  thus  you  have  your  pork  clear, 
besides  the  increased  value  of  your  lands.  Try  it 
and  see. 

Now  is  the  time  to  begin  the  arrangement  for  your 
rotine  of  crops,  which  will  best  promote  the  reve- 
nue of  your  farm,  with  the  best  fertilizing  improve- 
ment for  your  lands.  Hemp,  carrots,  onions  and 
buck-wheat,  may  be  cultivated  successively  upon  the 
same  grounds  for  many  years ;  but  clover,  potatoes 
and  Indian-corn,  oats  and  barley,  wheat  and  rye,  will 
not  answer  well  for  more  than  two  years,  without 
high  manuring  ;  and  even  then,  they  do  best  under  a 
change  of  crops  ;  flax  will  not  succeed  well  upon  the 
same  ground  oftener  than  once  in  seven  years,  there- 
fore, arrange  your  farm  in  such  order  as  to  have  a  re- 
gular rotine,  or  succession  of  crops,  once  in  4,  5,  6, 
or  7  years,  according  to  the  nature  and  circumstances 
of  your  farm.  Whenever  you  sow  flax,  oats,  or  bar- 
ley, sow  clover,  as  a  fertilizing  crop,  or  clover  and 
timothy,  or  orchard-grass,  (which  by  many  is  preferred 
to  timothy,)  and  stock  down ;  if  with  clover  only, 
for  two  years ;  but  if  with  clover  and  timothy,  or  or- 
chard-grass, for  four  years  ;  then  turn  in  your  clover 
for  wheat,  either  with  one,  two,  or  three  ploughings, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil,  or  other  circum- 
stances, and  sow  one  and  a  half  bushels  to  the  acre  in 
the  fall,  or  two  in  the  spring,  and  dress  with  plaster. 

When  your  grass  land  has  lain  4  years,  turn  in 
your  sward  by  deep  ploughing,  (say  8  or  10  inches 
deep  if  possible,)  and  plant  corn  or  potatoes,  with  d 
good  dressing  of  compost,  or  yard  dung  in  each  hill ; 
this  will  subdue  your  sward  for  a  second  crop  of  corn^ 
or  potatoes,  the  next  year  ;  or  any  of  the  spring 
grains  you  may  choose;  thus  you  may  have  a  sue 
cession  of  all  the  crops  you  may  choose,  vvithout  ex- 
hausting your  farm,  even  without  manure  ;  but  if  you 
use  the  clover  as  a  fertilizing  crop,  your  lands  will 
rise  in  their  value  under  every  rotine,  and  increase 
your  revenue.     Buck-wheat  may  be  one  of  your  ro' 


^^  THE    farmer's    manual. 

line  of  crops,  if  ploughed  in  when  in  full  bloora,  be- 
tore  a  wheat,  or  rye  crop  ;  but  before  corn  it  will 
not  answer.  I  have  generally  done  best  with  buck- 
wheat,  by  selecting  some  particular  piece  of  land, 
(unfit  for  the  winter  grains,)  and  devoted  it  to  the  cul- 
ture  of  buck-wheat,  successively,  for  many  years. 
To  illustrate  ray  ideas  of  the  succession  of  crops  a 
little  more  clearly,  take  the  following  :  viz. 
1st  Yr.  Barley,    oats,   flax,   or  spring   wheat,  or   rye 

with  clover,  or  clover  and  timothy,  &:c. 
2d  do.  Clover,  or  clover  and  timothy,  or  orchard-grass. 
3^^  ^'o.      ^  do.  do.  do. 

4th  do.  Wheat  or  rye  upon  the  clover-sward,  with  I, 
2,  or  3  ploughings,  with  clover  again,  with 
or  without  a  potatoe  fallow,  &c.  as  at  the 
first. 
5th  do.   Corn,  or  potatoes  upon  the  timothy-sAvard, 

then  barley,  oats,  Sic.  as  at  the  first. 
6:hdo.  Or  corn,  or  potatoes  again,  or  beans  as  fal- 
lows for  wheat  or  rye  ;  or  for  the   spring 
crops,  as  at  the  first. 
Under  this  management,  every  farmer  can  appor- 
tion his  farm  so  as  to  have  an  equal  portion  of  each 
successive  crop,  and  never  exhaust  his  soil. 

It  is  common  for  farmers  to  argue  thus :  This  land 
must  bear  corn  again  ;  this  ground  tills  easy,  and  bore 
good  crops  the  last  year,  and  the  year  before  :  without 
reflecting,  that  after  the  third  crop,  the  land  will  have 
sunk  one  half  of  its  value  for  the  next  year's  tillage, 
or  will  require  a  length  of  time,  or  an  expense  of  ma- 
nure to  restore  its  fertility,  which  will  gready  reduce 
the  value  of  the  preceding  crops.  The  same  farmer 
would  not  say.  Take  such  a  horse  from  my  stable  to 
perform  such  a  journey,  he  has  just  returned  from  a 
second  of  the  same  length,  and  he  has  done  well ;  but 
he  would  rather  say,  Feed  such  a  horse  with  particu- 
lar care  •,  for  he  has  just  performed  two  long  journeys, 
and  take  a  fresh  horse  for  the  next  long  journey  ;  the 
other  horse  -with  proper  care,  will  do  the  business  q{ 


THE    farmer's    manual.  29 

the  family  until  he  is  recruited.  Just  so  with  your 
land  ;  all  the  animal  principles  peculiar  to  your  horse, 
or  your  ox,  are  common  to  your  land,  (except  loco- 
motion,) and  require  the  same  attentive  care  and 
nursing,  to  render  it  profitable. 

Flax  is  generally  considered  a  poor  crop,  and  with 
poor  husbandry  it  is  correctly  estimated  ;  but  with  2, 

3,  or  4  ploughing^  and  rich  manures,  flax  will  produce 

4,  5,  or  6cwt.  to  the  acre,  with  8  or  10  bushels  of 
seed  ;  this  is  no  mean  crop  ;  say  5cwt.  at  12  cts.  $  60 

10  bushels  seed  at  1  dollar,     -       10 


$10 


If  your  land  is  suitable  for  flax,  the  season  favoura- 
ble, and  you  manure  with  10,  15,  or  20  loads  of  well 
rotted,  rich  manure,  and  dress,  and  harrow  in  with  4 
or  5  bushels  of  fine  salt  to  the  acre,  or  1,  2,  or  3 
bushels  of  plaster,  and  sow  clean  seed,  three  bushels 
to  the  acre  ;  you  may  always  expect  4  to  6cwt.  to  the 
acre  ;  whereas  even  two  would  pay  you  handsomely ; 
6cwt.  of  flax  to  tha  acre,  have  been  raised  from'  five 
pecks  of  seed,  after  hemp  ^\we  years  in  succession, 
with  about  13  bushels  of  seed  ;  this  proves  that  hemp 
*  and  flax  are  not  incompatible  with  each  other,  and 
that  flax  is  no  mean  crop. 

Gypsum. — Soils, 

From  the  experiments  made  upon  Gypsum,  as  a 
manure,  by  Mr.  Holbrook,  of  Derby,  it  clearly  ap- 
pears, that  it  answers  best  upon  both  grain  and  grasr* 
grounds,  (if  sown  \\\  the  spring,)  to  be  sown  in  this 
month.  His  reports  to  the  New-Haven  County  Agri- 
cultural Society,  have  given  full  demonstration  of  this 
fact,  as  has  been  quoted.  One  of  the  objections  to 
Gypsum  as  a  manure,  has  been,  and  continues  to  be, 
that  it  will  not  answer  upon  but  few  soils,  and  those 
of  a  sandy,  or  gravelly  loam.     This  objection  is  nov/ 


30  THE  farmer's  MANUAtiv 

found  from  the  best  experience,  not  to  be  true.  Gyp- 
sum answers  well  upon  all  grounds  where  clover 
will  flourish,  and  this  may  be  considered  as  a  criterion, 
notwithstanding  it  answers  best  upon  a  sandy,  gra- 
velly, or  a  loamy  soil,  and  so  does  clover.  If  your 
soil  is  a  stiB'clay,  you  may  reduce  it  to  a  loam,  by 
dressing  the  surface  frequently  when  under  a  sward, 
or  covered  widi  herbage,  with  plaster,  sand,  and  rich 
manures,  until  you  obtain  a  rich  sward,  then  turn  in 
your  sward  for  tillage,  and  stock  down  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  dress  again  as  before;  in  a  few  years, 
the  stiftest  clay  may  be  reduced  to  a  rich  clay  loam. 
If  your  land  is  a  coarse,  sharp  sand,  and  even  a 
blowing  sand,  you  may  reduce  it  to  a  loam  by  sowing 
plaster,  with  red-top,  or  other  fibrous  rooted  grasses, 
until  you  can  obtain  a  sward,  then  dress  with  plaster ; 
with  strong  clay  loam ;  marl ;  or  even  with  a  stiff 
clay,  laid  on  in  the  fall,  and  well  spread,  and  the 
clods  well  broken  with  the  harrow  and  roller ;  these 
dressings  will  commix  with  the  sward,  by  the  assist- 
ance of  the  frosts  and  rains  of  w^inter  and  spring. 
When  your  sward  has  become  strong  and  rich  by 
the  aid  of  rich  manures,  break  up  by  deep  plough- 
ing ;  take  one  crop  of  potatoes,  or  grain,  then  stock 
down  again,  and  proceed  as  before  ;  you  will  in  a  few 
years  obtain  a  rich  sandy  loam.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, that  the  texture  of  these  opposite  soils  can  be 
changed,  only,  by  dressing  upon  the  surface,  when 
under  a  sward.  The  success  of  this  mode  of  tillage 
depends  very  much  upon  the  attention  of  the  farmer, 
in  avoiding  a  tillage  with  the  exhausting  crops,  when 
his  lands  are  ploughed  ;  and  in  stocking  down  again 
as  soon  as  possible,  that  he  may  continue  the  means 
of  changing  the  soil,  by  raising  the  strength  and  fer- 
tility of  his  land. 

The  clay  soil,  when  under  tillage,  cannot  be  plough- 
ed too  frequently,  to  obtain  the  best  crop;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  your  light  sandy  soil  will  do  best  under 
one  ploughing,  and  that  should  always   be  as  deep 


THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL.  31 

as  the  furrow  which  buried  the  sward,  when  broken 
up,  and  no  deeper.  It  is  therefore  of- importance,  to 
obtain  a  deep  soil  by  burying  the  sward  under  a  fur- 
row 8  or  10  inches,  upon  all  sward-grounds,  when 
broken  up.  You  may  sow  turnips  to  advantage,  as 
a  tillage  crop,  upon  either  of  these  grounds,  in  their 
changing  state,  provided  you  feed  them  off  with  sheep, 
by  hurdles,  upon  the  ground  ;  but  not  as  a  crop  to  be 
pulled  and  removed  ;  because  they  are  one  of  the 
most  exhausting  crops  ;  they  will  impoverish  your 
soil,  and  thus  defeat,  in  some  measure,  your  object. 
Clover,  and  buck-wheat  may  be  used  upon  both,  it 
ploughed  in  when  green,  as  a  fertilizing  crop,  when 
the  soils  begin  to  mix,  and  become  fertile  ;  both  these 
soils  may  thus  be  reduced  to  a  rich  profitable  tillage, 
for  every  description  of  crop.  The  farmer  must  al- 
ways preserve  this  caution,  that  if  he  exhausts  their 
strength  by  bad  tillage,  they  will  both  revert  to  their 
original  state,  and  become  clay  and  sand  again  ;  but 
by  good  tillage,  they  will  continue  to  improve,  until 
the  one  becomes  a  rich  clay  loani,  and  the  other  a 
rich  sand  loam,  fit  for  clover  and  wheat  for  ever.  It 
is  wor;hy  of  notice,  that  the  substratum  of  sandy  soils, 
(even  dead  blowing  sands,)  is  most  generally  a  strong 
clay ;  thus  nature  furnishes  the  means  of  perfecting 
her  works  for  the  use  of  man,  upon  the  same  grounds ; 
the  upper  surface  of  sand  may  be  removed,  upon  one 
side  or  corner  of  your  field,  and  the  substratum  of  clay 
be  dug  and  carted  on,  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes 
required,  and  at  very  little  expense. 

I  am  fully  sensible  that  the  high  price  of  labour  in 
our  country,  is  a  very  serious  objection  to  any  very 
extensive  improvements  in  reclaiming  lands  in  this 
mode  ;  but  such  lands  as  are  near  to  our  dwellings, 
become  more  immediately  the  objects  of  our  atten- 
tion-, try  these  first,  and  you  can  then  determine  how 
far  it  will  be  for  your  interest  to  continue  the  improve- 
ments. 


S2  THE  farmer's  manual. 

Rut  a  Bag:a» 


L*^H 


I  have  seen  in  the  month  of  Jane,  the  yellow 
Sweedish  Lapland  turnip,  known  by  the  name  of 
Ruta  Baga,  as  fair  and  clear  from  pith,  as  when  dug 
in  autumn.  This  turnip  is  a  rich,  well  flavoured,  nu- 
tricious  root,  and  an  object  worthy  the  attention  of 
the  farmers  of  our  country.  They  are  now  becom- 
ing common,  and  seed,  or  the  roots  for  seed,  may 
easily  be  obtained.  Let  every  farmer  set  in  this 
month,  in  his  garden,  as  many  roots  as  will  stock 
such  lands  as  will  answer  for  this  turnip,  their  extra 
price  and  demand  in  market,  together  with  the  ex- 
tra advantage  of  their  keeping  fresh  and  sound  over 
to  summer,  render  them  valuable,  both  for  the  table, 
and  for  cows,  hogs  and  ewes.  Every  means  which 
the  farmer  can  multiply  upon  his  farm  for  the  sup- 
port of  animal  life,  goes  so  far  to  save  his  corn  and 
grain,  and  these  become  ready  cash  in  the  best  mark- 
et, and  thus  increase  the  means  of  raising  the  value 
of  the  farm,  by  manure  and  tillage. 

This  turnip  may  be  raised  to  advantage  upon  such 
stubble  lands  as  you  may  wish  to  turn  in,  as  a  ferti- 
lizing tillage,  without  much  damage  to  such  land,  if 
you  sow  1,  2,  or  3  bushels  of  plaster  to  the  acre,  at 
the  time  of  sowing  your  turnips  ;  provided  also,  that 
you  soak  your  seed  in  train-oil,  (a  sure  preventative 
against  the  %,)  and  mix  it  with  piaster,  so  as  to  ren- 
der your  casts  free  :  provided  also,  that  you  sow  but 
half  a  pound  of  clean  seed  to  the  acre. 

Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  seen  a  treatise  writ- 
ten by  Wm.  Cobbetupon  the  culture,  uses,  &Ci  of  the 
Ruta  Baga,  published  in  New-York,  in  the  year  1818. 

As  Mr.  Cobbet  has  taken  the  lead,  in  America,  in 
the  culture  of  this  most  valuable  root,  and  as  his  mode 
of  culture,  together  with  his  remarks  on  its  uses,  ex- 
ceed any  that  I  have  seen  ;  I  shall  give  a  general 
summary  of  his  treatise  by  way  of  extracts  from  r 
most  essential  parts. 


THE   farmer's  manual.  33 

RUTA    BAGA. 

Description  of  the  Plant, 

*'  The  Leaf  of  every  other  sort  of  turnip  is  of  a  yel- 
lowish green ;  but  the  leaf  of  the  Ruta  Baga  is  of  a 
blueish  green,  like  the  green  of  peas  when  of  their 
full  size,  or  like  the  green  of  a  young  and  thrifty 
Yorkshire  Cabbage ;  hence  it  is  called  tiic  OiiOOage- 
Turnip.  The  characteristics  that  most  decidedly 
distinguish  this  root  are  these  :  the  outside  of  the 
bulb  of  the  Ruta  Baga  is  of  a  greenish  hue,  mixed 
towards  the  top  with  a  colour  bordering  upon  the  red  ; 
and  the  inside,  if  they  are  true  and  pure,  is  of  a  deep 
yellow^  nearly  the  colour  of  gold." 

Mode  of  saving  and  preserving  the  Seed, 

**  The  Ruta  Baga  is  apt  to  degenerate,  if  the  seed  is 
lot  saved  with  care.  In  England,  we  select  tjie  fair- 
est roots,  and  of  the  best  form,  for  seed,  rejecting  all 
such  as  are  of  a  whitish  colour,  or  greenish  towards 
the  neck,  prefering  such  as  are  of  a  reddish  cast. 
These,  when  selected,  should  be  carefully  preserved 
over  the  vWnter,  and  set  in  the  month  of,  March  or 
April  in  a  rich  soil,  remote  from  any  roots  of  the  Tur- 
nip, or  Cabbage  kind,  to  preserve  the  seed  pure  and 
immixed.  Two  or  three  roots,  if  they  do  well,  will 
yield  seed  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  land.  Let  the 
seed   remain  in  the  pods  until  the  time  of  sowing." 

Time  of  Sowing • 

"  The  time  of  sowing  may  be  from  the  25th  of  June 
to  the  16th  of  July,  as  circumstances  may  be:  as  the 
result  of  all  my  experiments  will  fully  show." 

Quality  and  preparation  of  the  Land. 

'^  As  a  fine,  rich,  loose  garden  mould,  of  great  depth, 


34  THE  farmer's   manual. 

and  haviHg  a  porous  substratum,  is  best  for  every 
thing  that  vegetates,  except  plants  that  live  best  in 
water,  so  it  is  best  \^ith  Ruta  Baga.  I  know  of  no  soil 
in  the  United  States,  upon  which  this  root  may  not  be 
cultivated  with  the  greatest  facility,  excepting  a  pure 
sand^  and  a  stiff  clay  ^  which  are  very  rare  in  this  Coun- 
try." Mr.  Cobbet  here  goes  on  to  state  his  success- 
ful eApcrlraents  in  obtaining  a  good  crop  of  Ruta 
Baga,  with  very  little  manure,  (and  that  of  an  inferior 
quality,)  upon  an  exhausted  soil. 

Manner  of  Sowing. 

''My  Ploughman  put  the  ground  up  in  little  ridges., 
having  two  furrows  on  each  side  of  the  ridge,  so  that 
each  ridge  consisted  of  four  furrows,  and  the  tops  of 
the  ridges  were  about  4  feet  from  each  other;  and  as 
thet>loughiHg  was  performed  to  a  great  depth,  there 
was  of  course  a  very  deep  gutter  between  every  two 
ridges. 

''  I  took  care  to  have  the  manure  placed  so  as  to  be 
under  the  middle  of  each  ridge,  that  is  to  say,  just  be- 
neath where  my  seed  was  to  come,  which  was  sown 
principally  in  this  manner  :  a  man  went  along  by  the 
side  of  each  ridge,  and  put  down  2  or  3  seeds  in 
places  of  10  or  12  inches  distance  from  each  other, 
just  drawing  a  little  earth  over,  and  pressing  it  light- 
ly upon  the  seed,  in  order  to  make  it  vegetate  quick- 
ly, before  the  earth  became  too  dry.  In  this  method, 
four  pounds  of  seed  sowed  7  acres.  Two  men  sow- 
ed the  whole  7  acres  in  two  days. 

"  Broad-cast  sowing  will  however  generally  be  pre- 
ferred ;  but  when  I  have  spoken  of  the  after  culture, 
I  shall  compare  the  two  methods,  that  the  reader  may 
decide  for  himself." 

j^fter  Culture. 

"  When  the  plants  were  fairly  up,  we  went  with  a 


THE    farmer's    manual.  So 

small  hoe,  and  took  out  all  but  one  in  each  10  or  12 
inches,  and  thus  left  them  to  stand  single.  We  next 
went  with  a  hoe,  and  hoed  the  tops  of  the  ridges,  about 
6  inches  wide  on  each  side  of  the  rows  of  plants, 
and  then  horse-hoed  between  the  rows  with  a  common 
horse-plough,  after  the  manner  of  tilling  Indian-corn, 
or  potatoes  ;  by  first  turning  the  earth  from  the  plants, 
and  next  towards  the  plants,  at  the  second  hoeing. 
There  is  no  ground  lost  in  these  wide  intervals,  for 
the  lateral  roots  of  the  large  turnip,  as  well  as  the 
Jluta  Baga,  will  extend  6  feet  from  the  bulb  of  the 
plant ;  and  my  crop  of  thirty-three  tons,  or  thirteen 
hundred  and  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre,  taking  the 
whole  field  together,  had  the  same  intervals  ;  and  less 
than  this,  as  was  practised  by  my  neighbours,  always 
diminished  the  crop.  Wide  as  my  intervals  were,  the 
leaves  of  some  of  the  plants  would  nearly  meet  across 
the  rows,  and  I  have  had  them  frequently  meet  in  Eng- 
land. 

''  Now  I  think  no  farmer  can  discover  in  this  process 
any  thing  more  difficult,  or  more  troublesome,  and  ex- 
pensive, than  in  the  process  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  obtaining  a  good  crop  of  Indian-corn  ;  and  yet 
I  will  venture  to  say,  that  in  any  land  capable  of 
bearing  fifty  bushels  of  Indian-corn  upon  an  acre, 
more  than  one  thousand  bushels  of  Ruta  Baga  may, 
in  the  above  described  process,  be  obtained. 

"  In  the  broad-cast  method,  the  after  culture  must 
of  course  be  confined  to  hoeing,  or  as  Tull  calls  it, 
scratching, 

"  In  England,  the  hoer  goes  in  when  the  plants  are 
about  4  inches  high,  and  hoes  all  the  ground  over, 
setting  out  the  plants  at  the  distance  of  about  18 
inches  ;  and  if  the  ground  becomes  foul,  he  is  obliged 
to  go  in  again  in  about  a  month  afterwards,  and  hoe 
the  ground  again.  This  is  all  that  is  done,  and  a 
very  poor  all  it  is,  as  the  crops  on  the  very  best 
grounds  invariably  show,  when  compared  with  the 
ridge  crops." 


.UK 


>6 

Transplanting.     * 

''  This  is  a  third  mode  of  cultivating  the  Ruta  Ba- 
ga,  and  in  certain  cases  far  preferable  to  either  of  the 
others.  My  large  crops  at  Botly,  (England,)  were 
from  roots  transplanted. 

''  I  prepared  one  field  of  five  acres,  and  another  of 
twelve,  with  ridges  in  the  manner  described  for  sowing, 
and  on  the  7th  of  June,  in  the  first  field,  and  on  the 
20th  of  July  in  the  2d,  I  set  my  plants,  as  in  sowing,  1 2 
inches  asunder.  1  ascertained  to  an  exactness,  that 
there  were  thirty-three  tons  to  the  acre,  throughout 
the  whole  17  acres,  and  after  this,  I  have  never  used 
any  other  method. 

''  In  my  usual  order,  the  rows  4  feet  asunder  on 
the  ridges,  there  are  ten  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
thirty  turnips  on  each  acre  of  ground ;  and  therefore 
for  an  acre  of  ground  to  produce  thirty- three  tons, 
each  turnip  must  weigh  nearly  7lbs. 

''  From  a  large  field  i  afterwards  set  on  the  13th 
of  July,  I  weighed  one  waggon  load,  which  averaged 
eleven  pounds  each,  and  several  w^eighed  14lbs.  which 
would  probably  give  fifty  tons  to  the  acre. 

"  I  will  now  give  a  full  account  of  ray  transplant- 
ing at  Hyde-Park,  (Long-Island,  in  America,)  between 
the  21st  and  28th  of  August ;  the  season  remarkably 
dry. 

''  The  plants  will  succeed  best  when  set  in  fresh 
earth,  or  earth  recently  moved  by  the  plough. 

"  When  we  have  our  plants,  and  hands  all  ready, 
the  ploughman  begins,  and  turns  in  the  ridges,  (which 
have  been  prepared  as  before  stated  ;)  that  is,  he 
turns  the  ground  back  again,  so  that  the  top  of  the 
new  ploughed  ridge,  stands  over  the  place  where  the 
deep  furrow  was  before  he  began.  As  soon  as  he 
has  finished  the  first  ridge,  the  planters  begin  to  set, 
while  he  is  ploughing  the  2d,  and  so  on  through  the 
field.  This  process  is  not  very  tedious,  for  in 
1816,  I  had  fifty-two  acres  of  Ruta  Baga  planted  in 


THE  farmer's  manual.  37 

in  this  way,  and  a  crop  of  more  than  fifty  thousand 
bushels.  A  smart  lad  will  set  half  an  acre  per  day, 
with  a  girl,  or  boy,  to  drop  the  plants,  and  I  had  a 
man  who  would  set,  often,  an  acre  a  day. 

*'  Observe  well  what  has  been  said  about  fresh  earth, 
and  never  forgetting  this,  let  us  talk  about  the  art  of 
planting.  We  have  a  setting-stick,  which  should  be 
the  top  of  a  spade-handle  cut  off  about  10  inches 
below  the  eye,  and  pointed  smoothly  :  the  planting 
is  then  done  in  the  manner  of  setting  cabbages. 
Choose  a  dry  time  for  your  transplanting,  and  for 
this  reason  ;  if  your  plants  are  put  into  wet  ground, 
the  setting-stick  squeezes  the  earth  up  against  the 
plant  in  a  mortar  like  state  ;  the  sun  comes  and  bakes 
this  mortar  into  a  hard,  glazed  clqd  ;  the  hole  also, 
made  with  the  stick,  is  smooth  upon  its  sides,  and 
presents  an  impenetrable  substance  to  the  roots  and 
fibres  of  the  plant,  and  thus  the  vegetation  is  greatly 
checked;  but  when  plants  are  set  in  dry  earth,  the 
reverse  of  all  this  is  true,  and  the  fresh  earth  will 
supply  proper  moisture  under  any  degree  of  drought. 
The  hole  thus  being  made  \\\  dry  weather,  set  your 
plant  without  bending  the  poijit ;  support  it  with  one 
hand,  firm  in  the  hole,  and  with  the  other  hand,  apply 
the  setting-stick  to  the  earth  on  one  side  of  the  hole, 
so  as  to  form  a  sharp  triangle  with  the  plant,  then 
thrust  the  stick  down  a  little  below  the  bottom  or 
point  of  the  plant,  and  with  a  little  twist,  press  the 
earth  up  to  the  plant,  at  the  point,  or  bottom  of  the 
root,  and  it  is  done.  But  if  a  vacancy  remains  be- 
low the  bottom  of  the  plant,  it  will  not  thrive  well. 
This  is  true  in  all  transplantings,  both  of  roots  and 
trees."  Mr.  Cobbet  here  goes  oii  to  state  his  reasons 
in  favour  of  transplanting,  which  are  these  : 

1.  "  Time  may  be  gained  for  one  or  two  extra 
ploughings,  between  the  25th  of  June  and  the  25th 
of  July,  or  even  the  25th  of  August. 

2.  "  This  transplanted  crop  may  follow  some  other 

4 


3S  THE    farmer's    MANtrJAL. 

crop,  such  as  early  June  cabbages,  early  peas,  or 
potatoes,  kidney  beans,  white  peas,  onions,  &c. 

3.  "  It  saves  much  of  the  expense  of  after  culture. 

4.  "  It  fixes  a  sure  and  regular  quantity  of  plants 
upon  the  field." 

*  Time  and  manner  of  Harvesting, 

Mr.  Cobbet  here  recommends,  (after  stating  a  va- 
riety of  experiments,)  '*  that  the  earth  be  turned  off 
from  the  roots  by  an  ox-plough,  in  dry  weather,  be- 
fore the  hard  frost  sets  in,  and  then  gathered  by  hand, 
which  will  save  the  expense  and  trouble  of  loosen- 
ing them  by  the  spade,  and  greatly  expedite  the  work. 

"  The  crop  when  pulled,  may  be  secured,  over  the 
winter  in  the  usual  manner  of  securing  potatoes, 
either  in  the  cellar,  or  in  pits  dug  in  some  dry  part  of 
the  field,  and  covered  close  and  secure." 

Uses  and  mode  of  applying  the  crop. 

Under  this  head,  Mr.  Cobbet  goes  on  with  a 
lengthy  statement,  to  show  the  following  valuable  uses 
to  which  this  most  excellent  root  may  be  applied  to 
great  advantage. 

1.  "As  feed  for  cattle,  cows,  sheep  and  hogs,  both 
raw  and  boiled,  or  steamed,  (which  is  preferable,)  or 
even  poultry,  when  boiled  or  steamed. 

2.  '*  Cows  that  give  milk,  breeding  sows,  ewes  with 
their  Iambs,  and  even  pigs  at  weaning,  are  greatly 
benefitted  by  the  use  of  Ruta  Baga,  especially  when 
boiled,  or  steamed. 

3.  "  This  root  far  surpasses  the  turnip  when  fed  off 
by  sheep  with  hurdles,  or  otherwise,  or  by  hogs  upon 
;:he  field. 

4.  "  The  tops,  when  cut  before  the  roots  are  gather- 
ed, are  valuable  as  green  feed  for  all  the  stock  men- 
tioned above.  An  acre  will  yield  about  4  waggon 
loads." 


THE    farmer's    manual.  39 

Mr.  Cobbet  next  proceeds  with  an  ingenious  cal- 
'€ulation  upon  the  profits  of  a  farm  of  100  acres,  with 
12  acres  of  Ruta  Baga,  15  acres  of  Indian-corn,  12 
acres  of  orchard,  under  grass,  three  acres  of  early 
cabbages,  an  acre  of  Mangel  Wurtzel,  (or  scarcity- 
root,)  an  acre  of  carrots  and  parsnips,  together  with 
such  white  turnips  as  can  grow  conveniently  witii 
his  corn,  after  the  last  ploughing  and  hoeing;  and 
forms  this  result, 

"  With  these  crops,  which  would  occupy  32  acres 
of  ground,  I  should  not  fear  being  able  to  keep  a 
good  house  in  all  sorts  of  meat,  together  with  butter 
and  milk,  and  to  send  to  market  nine  quarters  of  beef, 
and  three  hides,  a  hundred  €arly  fat  lambs,  a  hundred 
hogs,  weighing  twelve  score  each.  These  altoge- 
ther would  amount  to  about  3000  dollars,  exclusive  oi 
the  cost  of  100  ewes,  and  three  oxen;  and  I  should 
hope  the  trees  in  my  orchard,  and  the  other  56  acres 
would  pay  the  rent,  or  interest,  of  the  farm  and  la- 
bour, with  the  taxes." 

It  will  be  noticed  here,  that  Mr.  Cobbet  calculates 
to  spend  all  his  crops  upon  his  farm,  and  thus  secure 
to  himself  the  advantages  arising  from  the  manure 
they  would  make.  If  any  one  should  doubt  the  prac- 
ticability of  this  plan,  let' him  turn  back  to  the  Salem 
Aims-House  Farm,  and  compare  for  himself;  that 
farm  had  not  the  advantages  of  the  Ruta  Baga  crop. 

As   Mr.    Upton  has  not  given  to  the    public  his 
particular  mode  of  managing^  his  farm,  and  feeding 
out  his  crops,  I  will  supply  its  place  by  continuing 
this  extract  of  Mr.    Gobbet's  proposed  process,  in  - 
detail. 

"  My  feeding  should  be  nearly  as  follows.  I  will 
begin  with  February  ;  for  until  then,  the  Ruta  Baga 
does  not  come  to  its  sweetest  taste  ;  it  is  like  an  apple, 
that  must  have  time  to  ripen  ;  but  then  it  retains  its 
goodness  much  longer,  I  have  proved,  especially 
in  the  feeding  of  hogs,  that  the  Ruta  Baga  is  never 
^-o  good,  till  it  arrives  at  a  mature  state.     In  Februa 


40  ifHE    TARMER's    manual. 

ry,  I  should  begin  with  my  Ruta  Baga  as  above  ;  my 
three  oxen,  which  would  have  been  brought  forward 
by  other  food,  to  be  spoken  of  bye  and  bye,  would 
be  tied  up  in  warm  and  commodious  stalls,  well  litter- 
ed and  cleaned  frequently.  The  Ruta  Baga,  chop- 
ped into  small  pieces  with  a  spade,  and  tossed  into 
their  manger,  say  two  bushels  per  day,  would  make 
them  completely  fat,  without  the  aid  of  hay,  corn,  or 
any  other  thing.  If  I  killed  one  ox  at  Christmas, 
one  in  March,  and  one  in  May,  they  would  consume 
about  260  bushels  of  Ruta  Baga. 

"  My  100  ewes  would  begin  upon  Ruta  Baga  at 
the  same  time,  (February,)  and  continue  until  July. 
They  will  eat  about  Slbs.  a  day  each  ;  so  that  for  150 
days,  it  would  require  120,000ibs.  of  Ruta  Baga,  or 
2400  bushels. 

"  Fourteen  breeding  sows  to  be  kept  the  year 
round,  would  bring  100  pigs  in  the  spring;  they  and 
their  pigs  would  consume  about  the  same  quantity. 

"  Three  cows  and  4  working  oxen,  would,  during 
the  150  days,  consume  about  1000  bushels.  I  should 
then  want  500  bushels  of  Ruta  Baga  upon  each  of 
my  12  acres;  (I  have  this  year  raised  600;)  which 
may  easily  be  done. 

"  I  am  now  come  to  the  first  of  July.  My  oxen 
are  fattened,  and  disposed  of.  My  lambs  are  gone 
to  market,  a  month  ago  or  more.  My  pigs  are  wean- 
ed, and  of  a  good  size,  and  now  my  Ruta  Baga  is 
gone ;  but  my  ewes,  kept  well  through  the  winter, 
will  soon  be  "fat  upon  the  12  acres  of  orchard,  and 
hay  ground,  aided  by  my  three  acres  of  early  cab- 
bages, which  are  now  ready  to  begin  cutting  or  rather 
pulling.  The  weight  of  the  crop  may  be  made  very 
great  indeed.  Ten  thousand  plants  will  stand  upon 
an  acre,  in  4  feet  ridges,  and  every  plant  ought  to 
weigh  three  pounds  at  least.  I  have  shown  before, 
how  advantageously  a  crop  of  Ruta  Baga  might  fol- 
low these  cabbages,  and  so  might  a  crop  of  buck- 
wheat.    My  cabbages,  together  with  my  hay  fields. 


THE    farmer's    manual.  41 

and  grain  fields  after  harvest,  with  about  40  or  50 
waggon  loads  of  Ruta  Baga  greens,  would  carry  my 
stock  well  till  December,  (cabbages  being  planted  at 
different  times,)  and  from  December  to  February, 
Mangel  Wurtzel,  or  scarcity,  with  white  turnips, 
would  keep  my  sheep,  cattle  and  breeding  sows  plen- 
tifully; and  my  100  fattening  hogs,  would  be  niore 
than  half  fat  upon  the  carrots  and  parsnips  ;  or  I 
should  keep  my  parsnips  over  till  spring,  and  supply 
their  place  with  corn  for  the  fattening  hogs ;  which 
would  consume  about  3  bushels  to  each  hog  to  com* 
plete  their  fattening,  the  remainder  should  be  reserv- 
ed for  sows  when  giving  milk,  or  the  ewes  occasion- 
ally. Thus  all  my  hay  and  oats,  and  wheat,  and 
rye,  might  be  saved  and  sold,  leaving  me  the  straw 
for  litter ;  these  surely  would  pay  the  rent  or  inter- 
est, and  taxes  and  labour. 

"  If  it  should  be  objected  that  I  have  taken  no  ac- 
count of  the  mutton,  beef  and  pork  my  house  would 
consume,  neither  have  I  taken  any  account  of  the  100 
summer  pigs  which  the  14  sows  would  bring,  and 
which  would  be  worth  200  dollars." 

Mr.  6obbetgoes  on  to  state,  "  that  his  stock  would, 
in  one  shape  or  another,  give  him  more  manure  than 
would  amount  in  utility  to  a  thousand  tons  weight  of 
common  yard  manure,  which  would  give  10  tons  to 
the  acre  annually  ;"  and  thus  concludes  ;  "  It  is  better 
to  have  one  acre  of  good  crop,  than  two  acres  of  bad. 
If  the  one  acre  can,  by  double  the  manure,  and  dou- 
ble the  labour  in  tillage,  be  made  to  produce  as  much 
as  two  other  acres  ;  the  one  acre  is  preferable,  because 
it  requires  but  half  the  fencing,  and  little  more  than 
half  the  harvesting,  witWialf  the  interest  and  taxes, 
as  two  acres. 

''  A  heavy  crop  upon  all  the  ground  that  1  can  put 
a  plough  into,  is  what  I  should  seek,  rather  than  to 
have  a  great  quantity  of  land.'' 

N.  B.  Mr.  Cobbet  has  not  noticed  the  profits  upon 
young  stock,  with  which  he  might  have  consumed  his 

4* 


42  THE    farmer's    MANUAi., 

hay,  nor  the  culture  of  pumpkins,  which  are  certain 
ly  a  nutricious  and  valuable  crop.  Neither  has  he 
noticed  the  method  by  which  he  proposes  to  supply 
his  farm  with  manure :  doubtless  his  hogs  would  pro- 
duce an  abundance  for  all  his  purposes,  if  properly 
littered,  and  this  would  also  surpass  in  value  his 
earth,  when  burnt  into  ashes.  These  two  manures, 
wlnmn  combined,  would  support  his  system  of  farming 
for  ever,  without  exhausting  his  farm.  Mr.  Cobbet 
very  justly  excludes  the  horse  from  the  profitable 
stock  upon  his  farm,  and  treats  him  as  an  article  of 
luxury  and  convenience  only.  This  doubtless  will 
stand  as  a  general  principle,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions. 

If  Mr.  Cobbet  had  combined  the  profits  of  the  dai- 
ry with  the  improvements  of  his  other  5Q  acres,  (as 
mentioned  before.)  his  farm  would  doubtless  have 
been  more  complete.  This  every  farmer  can  do  to 
suit  his  convenience. 

In  my  former  remarks,  I  have  not  noticed  particu- 
larly the  several  rotines  of  crops  used  in  England,  be- 
cause the  crop  of  Indian-corn,  which  is  so  valuable 
in  this  country,  is  not  known  to  them,  and  is  not  ad- 
mitted into  their  system  ;  they  substitute  barley,  oats, 
peas  and  beans,  in  their  fattening,  for  the  Indian- 
corn,  and  arrange  their  crops  accordingly. 

1  have  given  but  one  example,  which  includes  In- 
dian-corn, and  every  farmer  can  vary  this  example  to 
suit  his  own  convenience,  or  the  particular  state  of 
his  farm.  He  will  readily  see  the  necessity  of  pre- 
serving the  due  proportions,  and  regular  succession 
in  his  variations,  I  shall  conclude  this  remark  on 
the  rotine  of  crops,  with  tli||  following  remark  of  Sir 
John  Sinclair.  •'  The  most  effectual  mode  of  increas- 
ing and  preserving  the  fertility  of  weak  soils,  is,  by 
having  a  division  of  them  in  pasture,  thrown  out  of 
the  usual  rotation  for  3  or  4  years ;  and  then  brought 
in  again,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a  21  year's  lease, 
each  division,  in  its  turn,  remains  in  grass  for  a  pr 


MANUAl..  43 

iiod  of  time.  Every  part  of  a  farm  thus  derives  a 
proportional  share  of  the  advantage  of  being  kept  in 
grass,  which  is  preferable  to  the  plan  of  preserving 
one  part  of  a  farm  constantly  in  grass,  and  the  other 
in  yllage.  On  the  whole,  the  convertible  system  of 
husbandry,  where  a  large  proportion  of  a  farm  is  cul- 
tivated for  grain,  and  the  remainder  for  grass  and 
green  crops,  is  in  general  to  be  recommended.  By 
the  grain  crops,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  straw  is  pro- 
vided as  food  for  cattle,  or  for  litter  to  be  converted 
into  dung  ;  whilst  at  the  same  time,  a  fair  profit  is  to 
be  derived  from  the  grain.  The  superior  advantages 
of  that  system,  can  only  be  questioned  by  those  who 
have  had  no  advantages  of  obtaining  accurate  infor- 
mation. 

^'  These  departments  of  husbandry,  when  conjoin- 
ed, (instead  of  being  kept  separate,)  reciprocally 
contribute  to  the  support  of  each  other's  prosperity.'' 


MAY. 

Your  Spring  grains  are  now  all  sown,  or  about 
closing;  and  your  Indian-corn  now  claims  your  first 
attention.  I  have  before  remarked  that  corn  gene- 
rally has  been  found  to  do  best  when  planted  upon 
one-bout  ridges,  with  a  deep  ploughing,  either  upon 
long  dung  spread  at  large,  before  ploughing,  or  upon 
yard,  compost,  stable,  or  hog  dung,  put  in  the  hill, 
(say  one  shovel  full  to  the  hill,)  and  the  corn  horse- 
hoed  between  the  ridges,  and  hand-hoed  upon  the 
ridges,  and  thus  preserving  the  ridges  unbroken 
through  the  season.  As  this  mode  is  seldom  practis- 
ed, being  an  innovation  upon  the  ancient  custom,  I  will 
cite  a  few  reports  to  the  Agricultural  Society  of  New- 
Haven  County,  to  show  the  practical  correctness  of 
my  remarks. 


44  THE  farmer's  manual. 

INDIAN-CORN. 

Mr.  Mallet,  of  Milford. 

'*  When  1  plough  my  land  for  Indian-corn,  I  always 
lay  it  in  ridges,  whether  it  be  sward  or  mellow,  and 
plough  the  balks  up  to  the  ridges,  and  those  ridges  1 
never  disturb  by  cross  ploughing,  while  my  corn  is 
upon  the  land.  I  am  fully  convinced  by  my  own  ex- 
perience, and  that  of  almost  all  my  neighbours,  who 
pursue  the  same  method,  that  one  fifth  more  corn,  at 
least,  will  be  raised  in  this  manner  than  in  any  other 
upon  the  same  land." 

Mr,  Holbrook,  of  Derby. 

*'  Upon  experiment,  I  find  the  method  of  ploughing 
land  for  Indian-corn,  heretofore  recommended  to  the 
Society  by  Mr.  Mallet,  to  be  the  best  I  pursue.  I 
lay  all  ray  land,  of  every  kind,  in  ridges,  when  I  intend 
it  for  Indian-corn,  and  plough  the  balks  clean,  lay  them 
to  the  ridges,  before  planting  ;  I  never  disturb  those 
ridges  by  cross  ploughing.  Any  person  can  seq  by 
looking  at  the  part  of  my  field  which  I  have  treated 
in  this  way,  and  at  another  part  of  the  same  field,  that 
was  cross  ploughed,  that  the  part  lying  in  ridges  has 
much  the  advantage.  I  have  always  had  full  evidence 
the  same  way  upon  experiment." 

Judge  Chauncey,  of  Nezo- Haven, 

*'  I  have  planted  2  acres  of  Indian-corn  this  year. 
I  ploughed  in  the  manner  mentioned  hy  Mr.  Mallet, 
The  land  has  been  mowed  for  hwe  years  past,  and  the 
sward  is  very  tough.  My  crop  is  better  than  any  of 
my  neighbours  have  ;  and  they  agree  with  me  that  this 
method  has  increased  it  one  third.  From  three  years 
experience  of  this  mode  of  ploughing  for  Indian-corn, 
I  am  fully  confirmed  in  the  opinion,  that  its  tendency 
is  highly  beneficial." 


THE  farmer's  manual.  45 

This    mode   of  tillage   saves   about   one   half  of 
the    ploughing,    and  a   very    considerable   expense 
in    hoeing :  it   is   therefore   worthy  of  notice.      In- 
dian-corn  is  one   of  the  most   exhausting,    as   well 
as  one  of  the  most  expensive,  crops  ;  therefore  se- 
lect your  best  lands  for  corn,  and  spare  no  pains  to 
fit  your  land  at  planting,  so  as  to  get  the  greatest  pos- 
sible crops  from  a  little  land  ;  this  is  the  only  mode 
that  can  render  this  crop  profitable.     It  is  always 
best  for  your  corn  grounds,  to  spread  your  dung  at 
large,  and  plough,  or  ridge  in ;  but  this  does  not  al- 
ways insure  so  large  crops  as  to   dung  in  the  hyj:*>=^-^ 
Farmers  are  generally  agreed  that  one  larg6  pace,  or  ^ 
three  feet  distance,  for  the  rows  of  corn,  is  best;  but  ? 
they  are  not  all  agreed  as  to  the  distance  of  the  hills    ^ 
in  the  rows.     1  Have  seen  experiments  made  upon 
the  hills,  from  two  to  six  feet  distance,  and   have 
heard  them  all  extolled.      I  have  generally   found, 
three  feet  distance  of  the  hills,  to  be  about  right.     If* 
you  take  the  precaution  to  steep  your  seed-corn  24" 
hours  before  you  plant  it,   in  strong  tar-water,  with 
salt,  and  roll  it  in  plaster,  it  will  fully  repay  your  ex-^^ 
pense  and  trouble ;  besides  the  tar  will  keep  ofi'  the  <J^ 
crows  and  blackbirds,  and  save  your  corn  from  being  <y 
pulled  up.     If  you  throw  your  corn   promiscuously    ^ 
into  the  hill,  it  generally  falls  together,  and  will  not 
admit  of  more  than  three  stalks  in. a  hill,  to  advan- 
tage ;  but  if  you  place  your  seed  at  the  distance  of 
4,  5,   or  6   inches  in  each  hill,  you  may  let  4   or   5 
stalks  stand  to  advantage  ;  children  can  drop  your 
seed-corn,  and  thus  save  all  extra  expense.     I  have 
seen  a  publication  of  Mr.  Benjamin  Fowler,  of  Hart- 
ford, in  which  he  states,  that  he  raised  160  bushels  of 
corn  upon  155  rods  of  ground,  dunged  in  the  hill,  at 
the  rate  of  G  loads  to  the  acre.     The  one  half  of  this 
corn  was  planted  at  the  distance  of  20  inches,  and 
the  other  half  18  inches  distance  of  the  hills,  with 
only  one  kernel  in  each  hill,  and  the  18  inch  hills 
did  the  best.     This  goes  to  prove  the  importance  of 


46  THE    FARMER^S    MANCAI. 

separating  at  some  distance  the  kernels  when  planted 
in  the  hills,  at  the  usual  distance.  This  mode  of  Mr* 
Fowler's,  gives  only  two  kernels  to  the  hill  at  the  dis- 
tance of  36  or  40  inches,  whereas,  by  placing  the 
kernels  at  the  distance  of  4,  5,  or  6  inches  as  above, 
3  or  4  stalks  may  be  permitted  to  grow  without  inter- 
fering with  each  other,  excepting  by  their  shade,  and 
ir  the  suckers  are  removed  at  the  third  hoeing,  (as  was 
done  by  Mr.  Fowler,)  the  shading  would  be  greatly 
remedied. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  Mr.  Fowler  rolled  his 
^eed  in  plaster,  and  ashed  his  corn  at  the  first  hoe- 
ing. 

Indian-corn  is  an  exhausting,  expensive  crop,  and 
deserves  every  attention  that  will  promote  its  in- 
crease, especially  one  that  will  give  160  bushels  to 
the  acre.  Whenever  ashes  or  plaster  are  put  upon 
corn  at  the  hoeings,  they  are  found  to  do  best  when 
strewed  around  the  hills,  in  a  circle  of  8  or  10  inches 
diameter,  with  the  greater  quantity  near  the  stalks. 

The  best  seed-corn,  together  with  the  best  method 
of  collecting,  or  saving  it,  you  will  find  under  Octo- 
ber, the  harvest  month. 

I  have  seen  some  good  farmers  plant  potatoes  with 
their  corn,  alternately,  and  with  such  success  as  in- 
duced them  to  follow  the  practice ;  I  could  never  suc- 
ceed in  this  mode,  and  cannot  recommend  it,  unless 
the  land  is  very  highly  manured,  and  from  my  own 
experience  not  even  then. 

Pumpkins  are  a  rich  food,  for  your  hogs  in  Septem- 
ber and  October,  and  for  your  cows  and  cattle  •,  they 
may  be  planted  promiscuously  with  your  corn,  and 
do  well ;  but  as  they  are  often  too  thick,  in  this  way, 
to  be  profitable,  they  may  be  planted  between  the 
hills  of  corn,  of  every  4th  row,  and  every  4th  hill, 
upon  a  shovel  full  of  rich  manure,  2  seeds  in  a  hill; 
they  generally  do  best  in  this  way. 

Some  authors  recommend  to  sow  turnips,  thin, 
npon  your  last  hoeing,  and  have  confidence  in  it  as 


THE    farmer's    manual*  47 

a  successful  practice,  without  damage  to  the  corn ; 
upon  this  I  have  no  experience. 

Continue  to  plant  potatoes  through  this  month,  as 
3^ou  may  have  leisure,  to  stock  your  fallows.  A  pota- 
toe  patch,  with  pumpkins  near  your  hogs  pen,  you 
will  find  very  useful,  and  convenient,  in  bringing  for- 
ward your  hogs.  A  very  little  attention  through  the 
summer  will  bring  forward  your  hogs,  so  as  to  save 
your  corn  in  the  fall,  and  thus  save  your  cash. 

Your  cions  which  you  cut  in  February  for  graft- 
ing, now  begin  to  expand  their  buds,  and  claim  your 
attention.  Select  the  most  thrifty  stocks,  either  in 
your  field,  or  nursery,  of  1,  2,  or  3  inches  over;  put 
two  cions  into  each  stock,  and  if  they  both  grow,  re- 
move one  the  next  year,  this  will  give  as  much  head 
to  your  tree  as  the  two,  and  will  heal  over  sound  ; 
but  if  you  suffer  both  to  stand,  thiey  will  never  unite 
v/here  they  grow,  and  meet,  and  when  they  become 
loaded  with  fruit,  they  will  open,  or  separate,  so  as  to 
admit  the  rains,  and  thus  rot,  and  ruin  your  trees  : 
you  cannot  be  too  cautious  upon  this  head.  Never 
graft  two  upright  limbs  upon  the  same  stock,  for  the 
same  reason  ;  either  cut  off  the  one,  or  cut  and  graft 
below  both.  Graft  always  as  high  as  possible,  to 
guard  against  cattle,  and  to  raise  the  head  of  your 
tree,  so  as  to  admit  the  sun  and  air,  as  free  as  possi- 
ble upon  your  undergrowth,  whatever  it  may  be  ;  it 
will  also  improve  your  fruit,  both  in  size,  and  quan- 
tity. Mr.  Forsythe  recommends  heading  down  large 
bearing  trees,  to  change  their  fruit  by  grafting ;  this 
will  sometimes  answer ;  but  I  have  suffered  severely 
in  the  loss  of  thrifty,  full  bearing  trees,  of  10  or  15 
inches  over,  in  obedience  to  Mr.  Forsythe,  and  can- 
not recommend  the  practice,  unless  you  graft  your 
tree  partially,  the  1st,  2d  and  3d  years,  until  you 
have  accomplished  your  purpose,  and  I  can  say,  that 
even  this  is  not  always  safe. 

Guard  your  orchards  carefully  against  the  nest- 
worms,  at  this  season  ;  and  if  you  discover  any  of 


48  THE  farmer's  manual, 

your  fruit-trees  to  be  unthrifty,  or  hide-bound,  slit  the 
bark  with  the  point  of  your  pen-knife,  upon  4  sides, 
through  the  outer,  but  not  through  the  inner  bark 
(particularly  stone  fruit,  which  will  destroy  your 
trees,)  from  the  ground  up,  as  high  as  you  can  reach, 
and  dress  with  a  corn-basket  full  of  chip  dung,  about 
the  roots  and  near  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  you  will 
soon  perceive  the  good  effects. 

Open,  and  ventilate  your  cellars,  and  clear  them 
out  for  the  season,  and  rinse  clean,  and  bung  tight  all 
such  cider-casks,  as  you  wish  to  preserve  sweet  in 
your  cellars  over  the  summer,  and  free  from  must. 

Weeds. 

These  are  our  cornmon  enemy,  and  nature  has  ar- 
rayed a  host  against  us,  consisting  of  more  than  fifty 
different  nations  of  weeds,  as  marauders,  to  destroy 
our  labours,  and  rob  us  of  our  crops.  They  enter 
our  gardens  and  corn-fields  unobserved,  by  night, 
and  by  day ;  they  pillage,  waste  and  destroy,  more 
of  our  property  than  all  the  rest  of  our  enemies,  ex- 
cepting rum  and  tobacco.  Let  us  set  our  faces 
against  them,  watch  them  close,  and  extirpate  the 
first,  radically  from  our  corn-fields,  and  the  latter 
from  our  houses ;  then,  and  not  till  then,  shall  we 
have  peace  and  plenty,  with  the  voice  of  health,  both 
in  our  borders,  and  in  our  dwellings. 

Weeds  are  a  noxious  growth,  quicker  and  more 
succulent  than  any  of  the  grains,  they  therefore  ex- 
haust the  soil  more,  and  quicker  than  the  grains,  and 
they  also  rob  all  plants  in  their  vicinity,  of  the  ferti- 
lizing properties  of  the  air,  and  thus  doubly  destroy 
your  crop  and  interest.  If  you  wish  for  any  illus- 
tration upon  this  idea  of  nutrition  afforded  to  plants 
from  the  air,  examine  such  small  trees  as  grow  conti- 
guous to  large  ones,  or  such  corn  or  other  herbage  as 
growsrnear  to  a  tree,  or  other  corn,  or  herbage,  which 
is  greater ;  the  lesser  will  take  their  growth  in  a  di- 


iUh:    FARyiKK  6    MANUAL.  4V 

1-ection  from  the  larger,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing 
from  the  air  that  nutrition,  which  the  larger  robs  it 
of  upon  the  side  next  to  it. 

Thus  we  see,  that  every  weed  that  springs  up  in 
our  corn-fields,  becomes  a  tax  upon  our  industry,  or 
upon  our  profits,  the  first  is  necessarily  so;  it  is  a 
}>art  of  the  original  curse ;  the  latter,  which  is  not 
only  the  worst;  but  may  become  ruinous  ;  is  the  im- 
mediate effect  of  our  own  neglect. 

Weeds,  when  watched  and  extirpated  in  season,  are 
subdued  at  a  small  expense,  with  little  damage;  but 
when  neglected,  their  extirpation  is  attended  both 
with  expense  and  damage  ;  thus,  by  neglect,  we  suffer 
a  double  loss.     Worse  than  this. 

One  year's  neglect,  will  cause  seven  years  toil, 
and  a  seven  year's  damage  ;  so,  on  the  other  hand, 
one  year's  close  attention  at  weeding,  will  give  seven 
years  ease,  with  their  profits  :  take  your  choice.  To 
guard  against  this  common  enemy  as  far  as  possible, 
let  me  recommend  the  following  attention. 

1.  Plant  such  fallows  with  potatoes,  as  are  infested 
with  wire-grass  and  noxious  ^veeds.  The  plough 
and  hoe  together,  can  alone  destroy  this  enemy. 

2.  Suffer  no  weeds  to  seed  your  fallows,  either  in 
autumn,  or  summer. 

3.  Be  careful  that  your  seed-grain  is  clean,  and  free 
from  all  foul  seeds. 

4.  Observe  the  same  in  your  grass-seed,  when  you 
stock  down. 

5.  Pull  out  the  docks  upon  your  mowing  grounds, 
before  they  seed  and  ripen,  that  they  may  not  further 
foul  your  mowing,  or  be  carted  into  your  barn,  and 
fed  out  with  your  hay,  and  thus  foul  your  dung. 

6.  Remove  every  noxious  weed  from  your  hedges 
and  fences,  which  can  expose  your  fields  to  the  effects 
of  their  seeds.  Of  this  class,  are  the  thistle,  the 
dock,  and  burdock,  &c. 

7.  Suffer  no  old  tired  field  to  lie  waste,  as  a  nurse- 

5 


lO  THE    farmer's    MAJiJALo 

ry  for  weeds  ;  the  expense  of  ploughing  will  bear  no 
proportion  to  the  after  expense  of  weeding. 

8.  Weed  your  corn  with  the  plough  and  hoe  ;  not 
after  the  weeds  are  grown,  but  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  appear ;  one  crop  is  enough  for  one  piece  of  land 
at  one  time,  and  if  you  suffer  weeds  to  grow  with 
your  corn,  you  will  in  fact  have  but  one  crop,  and  that 
will  be  weeds,  your  corn  will  be  only  a  nominal  crop. 

9.  Weed  your  wheat,  rye,   barley,  oats,  flax  and, 
hemp  5   the  profit  will  l:;^e  as  great  upon  either  of  these 
crops,  as   upon  your  corn,   and  the  expense  com- 
paratively small,  (generally.)     Try  it  and  see. 

Irrigation. 

Jn  my  monthly  remarks,  I  have  noticed  this  spe- 
v:ies  of  tillage  generally  ;  a  few  remarks  a  little  more 
particularly,  may  be  useful  in  this  place.  It  is  not 
my  intention  to  give  my  remarks  upon  irrigation 
their  full  scope  ;  but  to  confine  myself  to  such,  only, 
as  are  adapted  to  the  practical  state  of  our  own  coun- 
try. To  make  the  most  of  this  subject  will  many 
times  require  a  large  capital,  even  in  England  where 
labour  is  cheap ;  but  the  expense  of  labour,  together 
with  the  limited  capitals  of  our  own  country,  will  not 
enable  the  farming  interest  generally,  to  extend  their 
improvements  by  irrigation  beyond  such  wash  as  they 
can  convey  from  gentle  descents  in  the  highways,  on 
to  their  adjoining  mowing  grounds,  and  such  wash  as 
they  may  occasionally  turn  on  to  their  meadows, 
from  brooks,  or  other  small  streams,  by  obstructing 
them  with  dams  suitable  for  the  purpose.  This  me- 
thod of  irrigation  is  both  useful  and  valuable,  and, 
when  turned  on  to  sloping  grounds,  may  be  multiplied 
very  extensively  at  small  expense,  upon  the  catch- 
work  plan,  (so  called.)  Upon  this  plan,  when  the 
wash  is  carried  over  the  higher  parts  of  the  field, 
(upon  sloping  grounds,)  lead  it  back  and  forth  at 
vsuitable   distances ;    remembering  -olwoys   to   keep 


THE    I^ARMER's    manual.  ol 

your  trenches  as  near  to  a  water  level  as  possible, 
and  yet  suffer  the  water  to  run,  excepting  at  the  turn- 
ings, where  the  water  descends  from  one  trench  to  the 
next  below\  Upon  this  plan,  you  can  flow  your 
grounds  even,  by  cutting  small  openings  from  your 
trenches,  and  even  obstructing  your  trenches  occasion- 
ally, to  promote  the  flow  through  these  openings.  The 
expense  of  this  mode  of  irrigation  is  small ;  but  the 
profits  arc  doubly  great,  both  in  the  quantity  and  qua- 
lity of  your  hay  ;  beside,  both  these  profits  will  in- 
crease annually.  No  manuring  will  give  such  profits 
upon  mowing  grounds  as  irrigation,  and  the  expense, 
generally,  may  be  considered  cheaper  than  plaster. 
Here  let  me  repeat  my  former  remark ;  make  the  most 
of  this  method  of  tillage  in  the  winter  and  spring  ;  it  is 
then  most  valuable.  Be  careful  to  keep  your  cat- 
tle, horses  and  sheep,  from  your  watered  meadows : 
the  first  will  injure  them  by  poaching,  and  the  feed 
will  give  your  sheep  the  rot,  and  even  their  hay  may 
be  unfriendly  to  sheep,  if  flowed  by  great  rains  in 
summer.  I  shall  close  this  article  with  a  remark  of 
Sir  John  Sinclair  ;  *' A  productive  water  meadow,  is 
probably  the  true  mark  of  perfection  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  farm." — Sinclair'^s  Code. 

Remarks. 

1.  It  is  the  easiest  and  cheapest  mode  of  fertiliz- 
ing /?oor  land. 

2.  It  promotes  a  perpetual  fertility  without  the  ex- 
pense of  manure. 

3.  It  may  be  made  to  yield  the  greatest  possible 
products,  both  in  hay  and  pasturage. 

4.  It  will  greatly  increase  the  means  of  the  farmer 
to  multiply  stock,  and  thus  enrich  the  other  lands 
with  manure. 

5.  It  is  within  the  power  of  almost  every  farmer 
to  derive  some  advantage  from  irrigation  ;  this,  when 
better  understood,  will  be  more  generally  improved. 


-^^2  ,  THE    farmer's    manual- 

All  alluvial  lands  enjoy  the  benefits  of  irrigation., 
and  such  as  are  upon  the  borders  of  large  streams,  that 
annually  overflow  their  banks,  derive  a  fertility  from 
a  warp,  or  sediment,  which  the  waters  deposit,  which 
is  peculiar  to  that  description  of  land,  and  renders 
them  peculiarly  rich  and  valuable;  such  arc  the  lands 
of  the  Nile  in  Y*%Y\ii,  the  Missisippi,  the  Connecticut, 
&c.  in  America.  The  warp  has  formed  by  its  depo- 
sit a  large  district  of  country  in  Egypt,  called  the 
Delta,  and  is  constantly  forming  large  and  extensive 
tracts  on  the  above  rivers  in  America.  Wherever 
this  can  be  promoted  by  the  assistance  of  art,  it 
should  never  be  neglected"^. 

*  Since  my  remarks  upon  the  culture  of  Indian-corn  were  in 
press,  1  have  seen  in  the  ConnecLicut  Caurant  the  following  suc- 
'•essful  experiments  upon  the  culture  of  that  most  valuable  grain, 
which  a^^pear  to  be  worthy  of  notice. 

"  From  the  Cooperstown  Journal,   Oct.  25. 

''"  ^.Agricultural. — We  are  pledged  to  publish  Uie  mode  of  culture 
adopted  by  those  who  were  the  successful  candidates  for  premiums 
on  corn,  &c.  at  the  late  fair  in  this  County.  We  have  accordingly 
selected  the  descriptions  given  by  Mr,  Hayden  and  Mr.  Brightman, 
the  former  having  raised  125  bushels  and  26  quarts  of  corn  to  the 
acre,  and  the  latter  109  bushels  and  4  quarts. 

"  Mr.  Hayderi^s  Statement. 

'  The  laud  upon  which  the  crop  was  raised,  had  been  occupied  *t  - 
veral  years  as  a  meadow,  is  of  a  flat  surface,  was  ploughed  first  in  0< 
tober,  1018  ;  in  the  spring  following  harrowed,  and  soon  after  plougii- 
ed  and  harrowed — then  furrowed  ;  the  farrows  being  about  2  feet  J 
inches  apart.     The  seed  was  prepared  by  steeping  it  in  a  strong  l\<e 
made  of  hog  manure,  for  24  hours  ;  after  which,  the  lye  wasdraint 
off,  and  I  added  to  half  a  bushel  of  seed,  a  half  peck  of  plaster — stii 
ing  it  until  the  corn  was  covered  with  plaster.     The  seed  was  thru 
suffered  to  stand  until  it  had  grown  an  inch,  when  I  planted  in  siugU 
kernels  promiscuously  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrows,  and  then  filled 
the  furrows  about  half  full  of  barn-yard  manure,  to  whicli  had  been 
added  about  five  loads  of  hog  mvauure.     In  weeding  time,  1  pulled 
out  many  stalks,  leaving  those  remaining  about  seven  inches  apart. 
It  uas  succoured  oucc;  and  hoed  three  times.' 

^^  Mr.  Brightmayi^s  Slateiri<:?ii. 

*  The  ground  is  clayey  loam  and  had  been  many  years  in  meadoAv 
About  the  mitidle  of  April  it  was  ploughed  very  sh;»llow.  ju^t  cir 


tHE    farmer's    manual.  -^^ 

JUNE. 

Youf  whole  business  of  Spring  husbandry,  both  in 
the  field  and  the  garden,  is  now  closed,  and  your 
fences  are  all  in  good  repair.  You  will  now  enter 
with  spirit  upon  the  culture  of  the  Potatoes  Yoii 
have  doubtless  planted  a  good  supply  for  the  table 
and  early  feeding  ;  and  the  time  is  now  come  when 
you  have  an  opportunity  to  enter  extensively  upon 
the  culture  of  this  most  valuable  root,  as  a  part  of 
your  field  husbandry,  for  the  use  of  stock  and  the 
market;  particularly  upon  your  fallow  grounds.  It 
is  true,  the  potatoe  may  be  planted  at  any  time  after 
the  ground  is  free  from  frost,  but  it  will  not  vegetate 
until  the  ground  becomes  warm.  It  is  also  true,  that 
the  potatoe  called  the  English  white,  may  be  planted 
with  success  upon  rich  ground,  as  late  as  the  20th  of 
July  ;  very  extraordinary  frosts  excepted. 

My  remarks  on  this  most  important  branch  of  good 
farming  will  be  ;  1st,  On  the  value  of  the  different 
kinds  of  potatoes,  and  their  use;  2d,  The  different 
soils  to  which  they  are  adapted;  3d,  The  manner  of 
planting  and  hoeing ;  4th,  The  time  and  manner  of 
digging  and  housing  them. 

1.  The  English  white,  Irish  yellow,  common  red, 
red  rusty-coat,  yellow  rusty-coat  and  purple  pota- 
toes, are  the  most  farinaceous,  produce  the  greatest 


tin^  through  the  sward,  I  then  carried  on  to  about  an  acre  and  a 
quarter,  thirty  wag-gon  loads  of  good  barn-yard  manure,  and  ten 
waggon  loads  of  chip  manure,  then  gave  it  a  deep  ploughing  and ' 
harrowed  it  down.  The  whole  of  the  ploughing  was  4  time^!,  and 
harrowing  was  performed  as  often.  About  the  middle  of  May,  1  dis- 
ported the  land  into  ridges  about  3  feet  apart.  After  levelling  the 
ridges  with  the  hoe,  I  planted  the  corn  on  the  ridges  at  the  distance 
of  eight  inches  per  grain  apart,  it  was  hoed  in  the  usual  manner  3 
times.  Previous  to  hoeing  the  last  time,  the  succours  were  all  taken 
oif,  immediately  following  with  the  hoe,  and  covering  up  the  wound- 
ed stalks,  which  I  think  was  of  essential  service  to  the  crop  by  pre- 
venting them  from  emitting  their  juice.  The  corn  that  I  planted  was 
the  small  8  rowed  white  corn,  intermixed  in  a  slight  degree  with  tlie 
yellow.'  " 

5* 


'■^^^  THE    farmer's    manual, 

quantum  of  starch,  and  are  the  mildest  and  best  lot 
the  table  ;  the  Spanish  or  hog  potatoe,  (so  called,)  is 
the  most  inferior,  both  for  the  table  and  market,  and 
is  fit  only  for  stock.  The  coloured  potatoes  require 
the  strongest  soils,  and  will  not  admit  of  late  plant- 
ing, as  they  require  the  longest  time  for  their  growth ; 
they  should  generally  be  planted  between  the  first  of 
April  and  the  middle  of  June  ;  the  white  and  yellow 
potatoes  will  do  well  as  late  as  the  20th  of  July  ;  they 
will  obtain  a  good  size  by  the  20th  of  September. 
It  must  be  understood,  that  this  late  planting  requires 
a  rich  soil.  I  have  generally  found,  that  lands  of 
any  description  of  soil,  that  will  produce  20  bushels 
of  corn,  will  produce  100  bushels  of  potatoes ;  allow- 
ing 1  dollar  per  bushel  for  the  corn,  gives  g  20  00 
25  cents  per  bushel  for  the  potatoes,  gives      25  00 

Leaving  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  potatoes  of    ^  5  00 

This,  in  the  same  ratio,  if  the  land  will  yield  40  bush- 
els of  corn,  will  give  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  pota- 
toe crop  of  i^lO;  together  with  another  advantage, 
too  important  to  pass  unnoticed.  Indian-corn  may  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  exhausting  crops,  and 
potatoes  one  of  the  least. 

When  it  is  considered,  that  the  true  art  of  farming 
consists  in  obtaining  the  greatest  profit  from  an  acre 
of  land  without  exhaustng  the  soil,  or  rather  by  cul- 
ture to  increase  its  fertility,  the  balance  will  be  found, 
in  an  increased  ratio,  in  favour  of  the  potatoe  crop. 

No  field  culture  admits  of  a  greater  variety  than 
that  of  the  potatoe;  some  farmers  select  the  largest 
for  seed,  and  plant  one  in  a  hill ;  others  select  the 
smallest,  and  plant  several  in  a  hill ;  some  divide  the 
largest  potatoe  into  two  parts,  and  plant  one  half  in 
a  hill ;  others  both  halves ;  some  divide  both  the 
!arge  and  small  potatoes  into  four  parts,  and  place 
the  four  pieces  in  the  hill  at  4  to  8  inches  asunder ; 
others  cut  out  the  eyes  of  the  potatoe,  and  plant  them 


THE    farmer's    manual.  66 

promiscuously,  as  they  plant  Indian-corn,  4,  5,  or  6  in 
a  hill,  and  thereby  save  the  potatoe  for  their  stock;  f 
have  found  all  these  modes  to  answer  well,  and  have 
heard  good  farmers  extol  each  of  these  modes  a 
being  the  best,  according  to  their  practice.  To  illus- 
trate this  subject,  I  will  give  an  extract  from  the 
Pennsylvania  Farmer: 

*'  On  the  2d  day  of  May,  I  had  six  large  potatoes  that 
weighed  2lbs.  and  2oz.  cut  into  thirty-three  sets,  with 
two  eyes  each,  which  were  planted  in  a  stiff,  deep  soil, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  rotten  dung  scattered  under  and 
over  the  sets,  which  were  placed  about  6  inches  deep, 
at  the  following  distance  in  the  rows,  divided  by  pegs  : 
No.  1,  11   cuts,  at  6  inches  distance. 
No.  2,  1 1    do.    at  9    do.         do. 
No.  3,   11    do,    at  12  do.         do. 
They  were  hoed  twice.     On  the  10th  of  October,  the 
earth  was  carefully  drawn  from  off  the  plants,  which 
were  extended  across  the  rows.     The  produce  was 
as  follows : 

No.  1  contained  124  potatocfs,  which  weighed 
28lbs.  lOoz.  and  occupied  6  feet  in  length. 

No.  2  contained  130  potatoes,  which  weighed 
32lbs.  2oz.  and  occupied  9  feet  in  length. 

No.  3  contained  145  potatoes,  which  weighed 
311bs.  2oz.  and  occupied  13  feet  in  length;  total 
9 libs.  14oz.  or  123cwt.  to  the  acre*." 

*  All  Nature  is  o^ovenied  by  fixed  and  immutable  laws,  or  princi- 
ples, and  the  true  art  of  husbandry  consists  in  a  correct  Imowledge 
of  the  laws,  or  principles,  of  each  plant,  either  separately,  or  collec- 
tively, in  connection  with  other  plants,  and  in  adapting  the  culture 
directly  to  the  assistance  of  nature. 

By  thl.5  example  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  potatoe  does  not  strike 
deep  in  the  earth ;  but  extends  horizontally,  at  a  given  distance,  be- 
neath the  surface,  where  it  can  derive  its  proper  nutriment  from 
the  sun,  air  and  rains ;  if  you  plant  below  this  natural  state,  or 
earth  up  your  plants  by  hilUng;  too  much,  yoa  counteract  nature,  and 
check  the  growth  of  the  first  settings,  by  covering  them  below  their 
natural  depth,  and  if  you  hill  up  your  potatoes  too  often,  you  will  in- 
crease the  number  of  potatoes  in  your  hills  ;  but  they  will  be  small, 
for  they  will  form  new  sets  at  each  lioeing  ;  therefore,  hoe  but  twice, 
if  it  is  possible  to  keep  down  the  weeds  without  a  tliird  hoeing. 


^O  THE    FARMER'S    MAP»rUAL. 

This  result  corresponds  with  my  own  experience 
for  many  years,  and  deserves  attention,  by  its  saving 
in  the  expense  of  seed.  If  4  sets  were  placed  in  the 
hill,  at  the  distance  of  5  or  6  inches  asunder,  and  the 
hills  3  feet  apart,  they  would  probably  produce  as 
many  pounds  of  potatoes,  with  a  handsome  saving 
of  expense  at  digging.  Some  farmers  cart  on  10, 
15,  or  20  loads  of  long  dung,  and  spread  it  on  the 
field,  and  ridge  it  in,  by  lapping  two  furrows  together, 
and  plant  their  potatoes  on  the  ridges  in  hills,  from 
2  to  3  feet  asunder  ;  hoe  the  potatoes  twice,  upon  the 
ridges,  and  keep  the  ground  clean  with  the  plough, 
between  the  ridges,  in  the  furrows ;  others  plough 
up  the  land  smooth,  and  strike  out  the  ground  into 
furrows  of  3  feet  asunder,  set  the  potatoes  (when  cut 
into  one  or  two  eye  sets)  at  10  or  12  inches  distance, 
in  each  furrow;  cover  them  lightly  with  the  plough, 
and  keep  the  land  clean  by  ploughing  up  to  the  rows 
two  or  three  times,  as  the  season  may  require.  In 
autumn,  they  turn  off  the  earth  from  the  rows  with 
the  plough,  and  dig  with  the  hoe,  this  answers  well ; 
but  I  have  found  an  increase  of  labour  in  digging. 
Some  farmers  plough  up  their  land  smooth,  and  strike 
it  out  with  a  plough  into  squares  of  3  feet,  rank  and 
file,  after  the  manner  of  planting  Indian-corn,  and 
plant  at  the  corners,  and  cover  with  the  hoe  ;  others 
make  holes  with  the  hoe,  from  two  to  three  feet  dis- 
tance, manure  with  farm-yard,  or  hog  manure,  or  roll 
the  potatoes  (when  cut  and  wet,)  in  plaster  of  Paris, 
or  throw  into  the  hill  with  the  sets,  about  a  table 
spoonful  of  plaster;  this  upon  a  gravelly,  or  sandy 
soil,  answers  well.  I  have  found  this  mode  produce 
from  1  to  300  bushels  the  acre.  Should  you  neg- 
lect either  of  these  modes  of  manuring  at  your  plant- 
ing, you  -may  ^Jress  your  potatoes  with  a  table  spoon- 
ful of  plaster,  or  a  handful  of  live,  or  leached  ashes, 
at  the  first,  or  second  hoeing,  with  great  advantage, 
upon  a  dry  soil.  These  are  the  common  modes  of 
cultivating  the  potatoe. 


THE  farmer's  manual.  57 

Two  important  modes  of  cultivating  this  most 
valuable  root,  claim  the  particular  attention  of 
the  farmer,  who  is  in  earnest,  and  regards  the 
best  interest  of  his  farm.  The  first  is  as  a  fallow 
crop.  Many  years  experience  enables  me  to  say, 
that  land  which  will  produce  8  or  10  bushels  of 
rye,  will  produce  100  bushels  of  potatoes;  the  dif- 
ference of  expense  between  one  ploughing  and  two 
hoeings,  for  an  acre  of  potatoes,  exclusive  of  the 
seed  and  digging,  and  two  ploughings  for  a  fallow, 
is  not  very  great;  the  profit  is  100,  150,  or  200  bush- 
els of  potatoes,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil ; 
with  the  assurance,  that  the  grain  crop  will  rather  be 
increased  than  diminished  by  the  potatoe  fallow,  pro- 
vided the  potatoes  are  dug,  and  the  rye  sown,  early 
in  the  month  of  September,  or  the  wheat  before  the 
1st  of  October,  which  may  always  be  done  with  the 
English  whites,  if  planted  before  the  20th  of  June. 
The  true  value  of  this  mode  of  tillage,  will  consist  in 
the  increased  quantity  of  stock  it  will  enable  the 
farmer  to  keep,  and  the  increased  value  which  he 
may  derive  from  his  manure  from  this  stock  in  his 
general  tillage.  Potatoes,  when  planted  on  the  same 
ground  successively  more  than  2  years,  will  not  do 
well ;  but  when  used  as  a  fallow  crop  will  continue 
to  do  well. 

The  second  mode  alluded  to  as  above,  is,  that 
clover  lands,  or  even  English-sward,  after  the  first 
cutting,  may  be  turned  over,  and  planted  with  pota- 
toes, with  assurance  of  a  good  crop,  provided  the 
land  be  in  good  heart,  and  the  seed  of  the  English 
whites,  and  the  planting  be  finished  between  the  1st 
and  20th  of  July,  with  one  or  two  hoeings,  as  the  sea- 
son may  require.  This  mode  of  tillage,  gives  the 
farmer  not  only  a  double  profit  upon  his  ground,  but 
a  double  advantage  in  keeping  his  stock,  and  pre- 
pares his  ground  for  a  spring  crop,  as  he  may  choose; 
or  he  may  even  sow  wheat  to  advantage  after  the  po- 
tatoes, if  the  sward  is  not  too  stiff. 

Although  the  potatoe  originated  in  America,  and 


oB  THE    farmer's    MANUAL. 

was  not  known  in  Europe,  until  after  the  discovery 
of  Columbus  in  1492;  it  was  little  known  in  the  hus- 
bandry of  our  forefathers ;  so  late  as  30  years  ago, 
if  a  farmer  raised  100  bushels  of  potatoes  in  a  sea- 
son^ it  excited  particular  notice  ;  and  now  they  are 
become  one  of  our  best  crops,  and  our  farmers  often 
raise  1,2,  or  3000  bushels  the  season,  which  always 
command  a  ready  market,  and  a  fair  price.  The 
value  of  the  potatoe  in  feeding  beef  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  horses  and  cows,  is  found,  by  the  experi- 
ence of  the  best  farmers,  to  exceed  in  value  any 
other  feeding;  even  the  Indian-corn.  No  feeding 
v/ill  afford  that  strength  and  support  to  Avorking  cat- 
tle, and  enable  them  to  bear  the  heat  so  well,  as  the 
potatoe.  When  I  come  to  treat  of  stock  particularly, 
J  shall  show  in  minute  detail  the  practical  calcula- 
tions of  the  best  farmers,  both  in  England  and  Ameri- 
ca, upon  the  use  and  value  of  this  most  excellent 
root.  Now  is  the  time  to  prepare  for  your  fall  and 
winter  feeding ;  no  farmer  ever  raised  too  many  po- 
tatoes, and  probably  too  many  never  will  be  raised. 

The  farmers  of  our  country  have  too  much  good 
sense  and  judgment,  to  render  it  necessary  for  me  to 
say,  that  great  care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  best 
of  every  crop  for  seed,  and  that  the  several  kinds  be 
kept  pure  and  unmixed.  The  good,  resulting  from 
this,  must  be  too  evident  to  have  escaped  the  notice 
of  the  most  ordinary  farmer. 

The  carrot  is  the  only  root  that  can  vie  with  the 
potatoe,  both  in  the  profits  of  its  culture,  and  utility 
for  feeding ;  but  this  requires  that  nice  mode  of  hus- 
bandry, which  renders  it  too  ditlicult  and  expensive 
to  be  extensively  raised,  so  long  as  the  price  of  la- 
bour is  so  dear  in  our  country.  A  few  hundred  bush- 
els may  be  easily  raised  by  farmers  generally,  in  the 
kitchen-garden,  with  very  little  «xtra  expense,  under 
a  proper  management ;  but  as  the  season  for  the  cul- 
ture is  past,  1  shall  defer  my  remarks  upon  this  root, 
together  with  the  mangel  wurtzel.,  and  other  roots.  ' 


THE  farmer's  manual.  59 

« 

until  i  come  to  treat  on  gardening  generally ;  I  shall 
then  give  the  subject  a  particular  discussion,  both  as 
to  the  best  practical  modes  of  culture,  and  the  best 
practical  calculations  upon  their  value  and  use  in 
feeding. 

Let  me  close  this  number  with  one  general  exhor- 
tation. Plant  as  much  of  your  fallow  grounds  with 
potatoes,  as  possible;  break  up,  after  mowing,  such 
sward  as  you  design  for  tillage  the  next  season,  or 
such  as  you  would  wish  to  sow  with  winter-wheat, 
and  plant  it  with  the  true  English  white  potatoes ; 
you  will  find  your  advantage  in  it.  One  hoeing  will 
answer  upon  the  i^ard  ground  ;  but  two  hoeings  arc 
best  for  both  sward  and  fallow  grounds. 

Clover  and  Tillage. 

This  has  become  a  most  valuable  and  important 
branch  of  husbandry,  both  as  an  article  of  tillage  and 
feeding,  particularly  for  the  use  of  horses  ;  but  I  shall 
defer  all  remarks  upon  its  value  in  feeding,  until  I  come 
to  the  subject  of  Stock,  and  treat  only  in  this  number 
upon  the  valae  of  clover  as  an  article  of  tillage,  and  the 
mode  best  adapted  to  its  cultivation.  The  red  clo- 
ver strikes  a  deep  tap-root  like  the  carrot,  and  when 
designed  for  tillage,  should  be  sown  separately,  with- 
out herds-grass,  or  any  other  mixture,  4  or  5  quarts  to 
the  acre  ;  it  may  be  sown  broad-cast,  after  the  man- 
ner of  wheat,  in  autumn,  with  the  winter  grains,  or  in 
the  month  of  March,  upon  the  winter  grains,  or  with 
the  spring  grains,  or  upon  the  spring  grains  after  they 
have  made  their  appearance,  or  even  with  buck- 
wheat at  midsummer  :  long  experience  has  proved 
all  these  modes  to  do  well ;  but  the  buck-wheat  is 
the  most  uncertain ;  when  the  crop  is  thick  and 
stout,  it  is  very  apt  to  check  and  smother  the  young 
clover,  and  leave  its  tender  fibres  exposed  to  the 
frosts  of  winter,  which  often  prove  fatal  to  it.  If  you 
are  constrained  to  sow  your  clover  with  buck-wheat. 


60  THE  tarmer's  manual. 

sow  the  buck-wheat  thin  ;  and  what  you  sacrifice  upoii 
the  buck-wheat  crop  will  be  gained  upon  the  clover. 
Never  cut  your  clover  the  first  season,  nor  feed  it 
too  close,  both  are  an  injury  to  it ;  but  the  second 
season  cut  your  clover  when  in  full  bloom,  when  not 
more  than  one  fourth  of  the  heads   begin   to  turn 
brown,  which  will  generally  be  in  the  month  of  June. 
The   cutting  and  curing  of  clover  is  very  nice  and 
critical  farming,  and  demands  the  first  attention.     The 
heads  and  leaves  of  clover  are  its   principal  value, 
the  stalk  when  coarse,  is  of  little  use  ;  therefore,  in 
order  to  preserve  the   most  valuable  parts,  cut  your 
clover  in  dry  weather;  and  whenghe  dew  is  dried  off 
from  the  first  swaths,  turn  them  over  gently,  without 
spreading,  until  you  come  to  the  swaths  which  are 
free  from  dew,  let  those  lie  untouched  until  noon,  un- 
less showers,  or  a  storm  become  threatening ;  in  this 
case,  break  off  your  mowers,  and  get  your  clover  from 
the  swath  into  small  cocks.     Let  the  cocks  be  made 
with  the  fork,  with  only  once  or  twice  rolling ;  but 
if  the  weather  continues  fair,  let  your  mowers  keep 
on  and  your  haymakers  follow  with  their  forks,  and 
put   all   the  swaths  into    small    cocks.      The   next 
day  let  these  cocks  stand,  and  go  on  cutting  as  be- 
fore ;  proceed  thus  until  you  have  secured  your  clo- 
ver.    In  two,  three,  or  four  days,  as  the  weather  may 
be,  the  clover  first  cut  will  be  fit  to  cart,  if  the  wea- 
ther proves  fair,  if  not,  the  rains  will  never  penetrate 
farther  than  the  winds  and  sun  will  dry ;  the  clover 
will  be  injured  only  upon  the  surface.     Should  a  long 
cloudy,  or  moist  turn  of  weather  succeed,  you  may 
give  your  clover   air,  by  taking  off  the  top  of  each 
cock  and  placing  it  for  the  bottom,  and  thus  with 
your  fork  change  the  order  of  your  cocks  by  bring- 
ing the  bottoms  to  the  top,  this  mode  will  cause  your 
cocks  to  shed  rain  better  than  the  common  mode  of 
turning  them  over  at  once  with  the  fork.     When  you 
find   your  clover  sufficiently  cured  for  housing,  take 
the  first  good  hay-day,  turn  over  your  cocks   in   the 


AS! 


THE    farmer's    manual.  til 

morning  when  the  dew  is  off,  and  as  soon  as  the 
moisture  is  dried  from  the  bottoms,  clear  your  field 
as  fast  as  possible  ;  thus  you  will  secure  all  the  valu- 
able parts  of  your  clover  :  viz.  the  heads  and  leaves, 
in  full  blossom,  and  as  perfect  a  green  as  when 
<yrowing ;  and  your  horses  will  hold  their  flesh  and 
do  more  service  on  this  clover,  without  grain,  than 
on  clover  cured  in  the  common  method  with  the  usual 
quantity  of  grain,  and  you  will  readily  experience  the 
saving  in  expense,  which,  although  of  importance, 
will  be  found  to  be  of  minor  consideration  in  this 
mode  of  husbandry*. 

A  few  loads  of  clover  may  always  be  housed  in  this 
mode  with  safety ;  but  if  your  fields  are  large,  some 
precaution  will  become  necessary  to  guard  your  mows 
^gainst  heating,  which  is  not  only  injurious  to  the  clo- 
ver, but  will  prove  injurious  to  your  horses,  and  give 
them  a  cough.     To  prevent  both  these  evils,  let  your 

*  If  you  sow  your  clover  thin,  with  only  2  or  3  quarts  of  seed 
to  the  acre,  (as  is  the  practice  of  some,)  it  will  be  of  an  inferior  quali- 
ty ;  the  stalk  will  grow  large  and  rank,  and  require  more  attention 
in  curing ;  therefore,  never  sow  less  than  5  or  6  quarts  to  the  acre. 
Whenever  your  clover  has  sweat  and  cured  in  the  cock,  so  that  you 
can  select  the  largest  stalks,  and  twist  them  like  a  string,  without 
their  emitting  any  moisture  upon  the  surface,  when  twisted,  you  may 
then  house  your  clover  ;  it  is^in  its  most  perfect  state.  If  you  sow  ti- 
mothy, or  herds-grass  with  your  clover,  you  may  manage  in  tliis  way, 
for  the  first  year,  witHP safety — the  second  year  it  will  become  about 
one  half  timothy,  or  herds-grass,  and  must  be  spread  and  turned  gent- 
ly, to  preserve  as  much  as  possible  the  heads  and  leaver  of  your  clo- 
ver :  the  third  year,  your  clover  will  disappear,  and  the  herds-grass 
must  be  spread  and  cured  in  the  common  mode  ;  I  say  the  common 
mode,  for  I  presume  that  every  farmer  spreads  his  hay  into  3  swalli 
winrows ;  (unless  it  be  heavy  English  grass,  of  2  or  3  tons  to  the  acre, 
which  will  occupy  all  ihe  surface  of  the  field  on  which  it  grew,  to 
cure  it ;)  this  saves  the  expense  and  trouble  of  one  rakiog,  and  that  he 
spreads  in  the  forenoon  all  the  swaths  cut  before  12  o'clock,  (leav- 
'  ing  the  swaths  cut  after  12  o'clock,  to  contini  e  in  the  swath  until  the 
dew  is  off  the  next  morning,)  and  that  he  gets  into  cocks,  before  5  or  6 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  all  the  hay  spread  upon  his  field.  The  fer- 
mentation which  hay  undergoes  by  standing  in  the  cock  over  night, 
not  only  sweetens  the  hay,  but  prepares  it  for  a  more  rapid  evapo- 
ration of  its  juices  the  next  day,  and  will  doubly  pay  the  expense  of 
cocking,  besides  the  security  it  affords  against  bad  weather, 

6 


G2  THE  farmer's  uahval, 

clover  stand  in  the  cock  a  day  or  two  longer;  open  it 
carefully  when  you  are  ready  to  cart,  xuithout  spread- 
ing y-  let  your  bays  be  open  under  the  bottom,  for  a 
free  circulation  of  air;  fill  several  large  bags  with 
hay,  set  them  erect  upon  the  floor  of  your  Ibays,  mow 
the  clover  around  them  with  as  little  treading  as  pos- 
sible ;  raise  up  the  bags  with  the  rise  of  your  mow, 
and  when  your  mow  is  finished,  remove  the  bags  ; 
these  openings  will  serve  as  ventilators,  and  secure 
your  mows  from  heating.  If  you  reserve  your  wheat 
or  rye  straw  for  this  purpose,  and  cover  your  clover 
occasionally,  as  you  mow  it,  with  straw  ;  your  straw 
will  not  only  prevent  your  mow  from  heating,  but 
imbibe  the  moisture  of  your  clover,  and  become 
valuable  feed  for  your  horses  arid  cattle,  and  thus  be- 
come a  double  saving.  One  bushel  of  salt  sprinkled 
upon  your  clover  as  you  mow  it,  will  preserve  it  against 
heating,  and  doubly  repay  you  in  the  value  it  will 
give  to  your  hay.  When  your  clover  is  housed,  you 
may  turn  in  the  sward  the  first  or  second  year,  and 
plant  potatoes  for  a  wheat  fallow,  or  feed  lightly  the 
second  growth  ;  but  never  mow  it,  if  you  intend  to 
cut  it  again  the  next  year.  The  first  and  second  years, 
your  crops  will  be  good,  the  third  will  fail,  and  the  clo- 
ver will  die,  unless  you  dress  it  with  manure  that  will 
bring  in  other  grasses.  The  death  of  your  clover, 
leaves  your  land  enriched  by  the  d^cay  and  putre- 
faction of  the  roots,  and  thus,  after  the  crops  have  re- 
warded liberally  your  expense  and  labour,  your  land 
has  risen  in  the  value  of  its  tillage,  and  is  better  pre- 
pared for  the  next  rotine  of  crops  than  before. 

All  farmers  of  celebrity  are  agreed,  that  the  true 
and  first  principles  of  good  husbandry,  consist  in  ma- 
nuring, ploughing,  and  a  proper  rotine  of  crops.  I 
shall  defer  my  remarks  upon  manuring  until  I  come 
to  treat  upon  the  subject  of  compost,  and  manures  ge- 
nerally, and  confine  my  remarks  in  this  number  to  the 
article  of  clover  and  tillage.  If  it  is  your  wish  to 
combine  the  improvement  of  your  stock   generally 


THE    farmer's    manual.  6o 

with  the  improvement  of  your  tillage,  sow  with  your 
clover  4  or  5  quarts  of  herds-grass  seed  to  the  acre ; 
dress  it  in  the  fall  or  spring  with  about  3  bushels  of 
plaster  of  Paris  to  the  acre,  if  a  light  or  gravelly  soil, 
or  with  8  or  10  bushels  of  live  ashes  to  the  acre,  sown 
u^Don  your  grass,  or  10  or  15  loads  of  good  yard,  stable,^ 
compost,  or  hog  manure,  if  a  clay  or  moist  soil.  If 
it  is  your  wish  to  continue  your  field  for  mowing, 
dress  it  again  the  3d  year  as  at  the  first,  and  so  on 
successively  ;  but  even  in  this  case,  be  careful  to 
avoid  a  second  cutting  until  the  3d  year,  (and  even 
then,  you  will  do  well  to  omit  it,)  and  feed  lightly 
in  the  fall ;  a  good  coat  of  feed  upon  your  mowing 
grounds  over  the  winter,  is  next  to  a  good  coat  of 
manure,  and  should  be  preserved  as  far  as  possible. 
Let  not  a  hoof  enter  your  grass  grounds  in  the  spring, 
particularly  •sheep  and  horses  ;  the  damage  will  be 
greater  than  in  June.  Whenever  you  turn  up  your 
grass  grounds  for  tillage,  be  sure  to  plough  as  deep 
as  possible,  this  will  not  only  give  a  good  depth  for 
your  corn,  or  potatoes,  to  extend  their  fibres,  but  will 
lay  your  sward  deep  to  rot,  and  thus  give  you  a  deep 
rich  mould  that  will  not  soon  be  exhausted  by  tillage, 
and  insure  you  more  successful  crops.  The  value 
of  clover,  when  cut  and  fed  green  in  summer,  or  when 
housed  and  fed  in  winter,  together  with  the  most  ap- 
proved method  of  feeding  with  it^  either  with  or  with- 
out straw,  1  shall  consider  under  the  article  Stock. 

Manures. 

The  basis  of  good  husbandry,  are  labour  and  ma- 
nure ;  these  rightly  applied,  will  always  insure  good 
crops.  You  have  disposed  of  all  your  winter  ma- 
nures, from  the  farm-yard  and  hog-styes,  undoubtedly, 
to  the  best  advantage  ;  the  time  has  now  come  to  at- 
tend to  your  summer  manures  ;  to  dress  your  lands 
in  autumn.     Let  your  hogs  be  enclosed  in  an  open 


64  THE  TARMER's  iMANUAL, 

pen,  near  to,  or  in  one  part  of  your  barn-yard  ;  throw 
into  this  the  scrapings  of  your  barns,  together  with 
every  vegetable  substance  that  will  putrify  and  rot 
through  the  summer  :  plough  up  and  cart  in  occasion- 
ally, such  earth  as  can  be  collected  from  your  ditches, 
or  old  sward  balks  ;  your  hogs  will  root  and  nfix 
them  together,  and  thus,  with  a  little  attention,  you 
may  obtain  20  or  30  loads  of  the  best  manure,  or 
much  more  if  your  hogs  are  numerous  and  receive 
your  attention.  You  will  find  an  advantage,  both  in 
the  growth  of  your  hogs,  and  in  the  quantity  of  ma- 
nure, if  you  sow  half  an  acre,  or  an  acre,  of  clover 
on  a  rich  soil  near  the  barn-yard,  and  begin  to  cut 
early  for  feed  for  your  hogs ;  it  will  be  found  both 
cheap  and  profitable.  According  to  the  best  prac- 
tical calculations,  it  will  give  a  profit  of  $  30  per  acre, 
when  cut  green  and  fed  in  the  barn-yafd,  either  by 
horses,  cows,  cattle,  or  hogs,  besides  the  profits  upon 
the  manure.  If  you  are  in  earnest  about  your  farm, 
you  may  carry  this  mode  of  making  manure  to  any 
extent,  by  mowing  and  carting  in  your  stout  stubble ; 
collecting  and  carting  in  your  coarsest  hay,  pumpkin 
and  potatoe  vines,  corn  bottoms,  husks,  &c.  The 
same  materials  will  yield  you  a  stronger  and  richer 
manure  from  your  hog-pens,  than  from  the  stercorary, 
(as  is  practised  in  England,)  and  without  the  expense 
of  shifting,  or  changing  it  by  hand,  as  in  the  sterco- 
rary practice.  Your  hogs  will  do  better  than  in  a 
close  pen,  and  the  same  land,  in  clover,  will  yield 
them  more  and  better  feed,  than  in  pasture ;  and  the 
manure  thus  obtained  from  the  clover-field,  will  give 
you  a  handsome  profit.  A  little  experience  will  soon 
lead  every  farmer  to  make  the  most  advantage  in  thi,s 
way,  which  may  be  rendered  very  extensive- 
Most  farmers  yard  their  cows  at  night,  through  the 
sumnter;  their  manure  should  be  collected  into  a 
heap,  in  some  convenient  part  of  the  barn-yard,  to 
prevent  its  being  wasted  by  the  sun  and  rains ;  a 
few  minutes  attention  in  the  morning,  when  the  co^^'^^ 


THE    farmer's    manual.  66 

are  turned  out  to  pasture,  would  collect  a  heap  of 
several  loads  in  a  season,  ready  for  your  wheat,  or  grass 
grounds  in  autumn.  If  you  should  cart  on,  and  cover 
your  heap  occasionally,  with  a  load  or  two  at  a  time, 
of  rich  earth,  (where  it  could  be  spared,)  it  would 
commix  with  the  manure  by  fermentation,  and  be- 
come rich  compost,  and  thus  increase  your  quantity 
and  your  wealth.  If  you  stable  your  horses  occa- 
sionally, or  generally,  in  saimmer,  let  this  manure 
also  be  conveyed  to  your  heap,  it  will  improve  its 
quality,  by  being  mixed  with  the  other  manure  and 
the  earths.  Four  good  loads  of  this  manure,  will 
dress  in  the  hole  an  acre  of  Indian-corn,  or  potatoes, 
and  upon  an  average  double  your  crop ;  this  is  no 
small  advantage ;  and  a  careful  farmer  will  not  neg- 
lect it.  Ten  loads  of  such  manure,  spread  upon  your 
grass  grounds  in  autumn,  may  be  considered  equal 
to  15  or  20  loads  of  farm-yard  manure,  laid  on  in  the 
spring,  especially  if  the  season  in  the  spring,  or  sum- 
mer following,  should  be  dry.  The  best  form  for 
constructing  your  farm-yard,  either  with  or  without 
sheds,  and  the  best  mode  of  preparing  the  farm-yard 
ill  autumn,  to  receive  the  stock  for  w^inter,  and  col- 
lect the  greatest  quantity  of  manure,  I  shall  treat  of 
at  large  under  the  article  Stock. 

Indian-Corn, 

The  season  is  now  past  for  planting  your  Indian- 
corn,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  you  have  ploughed 
deep,  upon  a  well  spread  coat  of  manure,  or  planted 
your  corn  with  a  shovel  full  of  rich  manure  in  the 
hill,  or  rolled  your  corn  in  plaster  of  Paris,  or  put  in 
a  large  spoonful  of  plaster  into  each  hill ;  but  if  you 
have  neglected  all  these  sureties  for  a  good  crop,  you 
may  correct  your  error  in  this  month  of  June,  by 
dressing  your  corn-hills  at  the  several  hoeings,  with  a 
handful  of  plaster,  or  of  live,  or  leached  ashes,  which 
will    greatly   benefit  your  crop ;  particularly  upon 

9t  6  * 


*)t)  THE    i-'AKMER^S    MANUAL* 

lands  of  a  light  and  gravelly  soil.  This  practice  of 
dressing  the  hills,  does  best  when  applied  at  the  firs^ 
hoeing,  and  repeated  again  at  the  third  hoeing ;  the 
first  brings  forward  the  stalk,  and  the  last  the  ear. 
When  you  weed  your  corn  at  the  first  hoeing,  turn  off 
the  furrows  from  the  hills  with  your  plough  ;  this  will 
leave  a  ridge  of  light  loose  earth  between  the  rows^ 
which  will  be  prepared  to  dress  your  corn  with,  by 
ploughing  it  up  to  the  hills  at  the  second  hoeing.  At 
your  third  hoeing,  or  hilling,  strike  a  deep  furrow  be- 
tween the  rows,  and  haul  up  the  earth  to  the  hills 
with  the  hoe ;  but  keep  your  plough  as  far  from  the 
hills  as  possible,  that  you  may  avoid  the  extended 
fibres  of  the  roots,  which,  if  cut  with  the  plough, 
would  injure  your  corn.  Avoid  the  corn-harrow  at 
your  first  weeding,  as  is  practised  by  some ;  this 
leaves  the  earth  close,  or  heavy,  and  dead  between 
ihe  rows,  and  injures  your  crop.  Be  sure  that  you 
finish  hilling  before  your  c©rn  begins  to  silk  and  tas- 
sel, (or  blow  out,  arid  set  for  the  ears;)  nature  should 
then  be  left  to  herself  undisturbed,  or  your  crop  will 
be  injured.  The  farinae,  or  blossom,  upon  the  tassel, 
^  as  small  and  light  as  the  finest  flower ;  this,  when 
;ipe,  falls  off  gently,  and  lodges  upon  the  silk,  which 
surrounds  the  cob ;  this  again,  the  husk  by  its  pro- 
gressive growth,  covers  and  protects  from  the  weath- 
er, or  other  injury  •,  each  particle  of  farinae  becomes 
a  kernel  of  corn,  adheres  to,  and  is  nourished  and 
supported  by  the  juices  of  the  cob ;  whatever  dis- 
turbs the  corn  in  this  state,  shakes  ofi*  the  farinas  ir- 
regularly, and  renders  the'  filling  out  of  the  ears  ir- 
regular. The  farinee  of  Indian-corn  are  so  extreme- 
ly small  and  light,  that  they  have  been  known  to  float 
in  the  wind,  and  mix  in  other  fields  of  corn  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  at  the  distance  of  80  or  100  rods*. 

*  If  your  com  is  planted  on  ridges,  upon  manure  spread  at  large 
npon  the  ground,  and  covered  with  the  plough,  preserve  your  ridges 
rtr.broken  iiyough  the  season  j  horse-hoe  the  furrows,  (a  plough  with 


THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL*  0  ■ 

Pasture  grounds  and  Fencing, 

These  articles  are  of  high  importance  in  good  farm- 
ing ;  but  perhaps  of  the  smallest  consideration  in  the 
estimation  of  the  American  farmer.  If  ten,  fifteen,  or 
twenty  acres  of  rough,  half- fenced,  undrained,  or  dry 
and  unwatered  pastures,  were,  by  clearing,  draining, 
watering  and  fencing,  rendered  as  productive  as  one 
hundred  acres  now  are,  in  their  present  neglected  state ; 
80,  85,  or  90  acres  of  the  remainder  might  either  be 
applied  to  tillage,  with  advantage,  or  bring  an  addi- 
tional revenue  in  the  sam?  ratio,  if  continued  in  pas- 
ture ;  both  by  the  increased  number,  and  value  of  the 
stock  they  would  feed. 

Fencing  is  a  certain  ratio  of  expense,  rent  and  inter- 
est, the  farmer  pays  for  the  use  of  his  lands.  If  the  pro- 
fits upon  an  acre  of  ground,  exclusive  of  the  expense  of 
tillage,  give  $  24,  and  it  costs  the  farmer  $  6  per  annum 
to  maintain  the  fence  ;  then  his  clear  profit  will  be  g  1 8 ; 
but  if  with  the  same  expense  of  fencing,  his  field  brings 
him  but.g  12  clear  upon  his  tillage,  he  then  gains 
but  $  6  ;'  this  is  paying  interest  with  a  witness.  If  he 
neglects  his  fencing,  his  whole  crops,  however  va- 
luable, may  be  destroyed  ;  this  is  sinking  both  princi- 
pal and  interest ;  therefore,  enclose  no  more  land  than 
you  can  both  fence  and  improve  well. 

Would  you  make  the  most  of  your  farm,  apportion  as 
small  a  part  as  possible  to  pasture,  and  multiply  the  va- 
lue of  this,  by  intersecting  it  with  cross-fences  into  as 
many  enclosures,  of  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  or  10  acres  each, 
as  may  be  found  best,  according  to  the  situation  and 
size  of  your  farm,  and  the  number  of  your  stock  ;  and 
according  to  the  situation  of  your  brooks,  springs,  or 
other  conveniences  for  watering;  thus  you  may  mul- 

a  double  mould-board  would  answer  well,)  and  earth  up  your  com 
on  the  ridges  with  the  hoe,  the  roo4s  of  your  corn  will  extend  upon 
the  ridges  unbroken  by  tlie  plough,  and  derive  the  greatest  possible 
benefit  from  your  manure  ;  the  labour  will  be  less,  and  the  crop  luudx 
better  than  iu  the  usual  mode  of  ploughing  across  the  ridges. 


68  THE  farmer's  manual. 

tiply  the  value  of  your  pasture  grounds  by  frequei/ 
changings,  and  your  stock  will  have  a  regular  suc- 
cession of  fresh  feed,  untrodden,  and  otherwise  unin- 
jured ;  the  advantages  of  this  will  soon  be  perceived 
in  your  stock  generally ;  but  will  be  most  evident  in 
your  dairy.  Your  cows  are  the  prime  object  of 
your  pasture  grounds  ;  therefore  never  suffer  your 
horses  or  sheep  to  enter  your  dairy  pastures  ;  they 
not  only  crop  close,  and  thus  protract  the  time  for 
the  regular  successive  croppings  ;  and  also,  expose 
your  pastures  to  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  espe- 
cially in  time  of  drought  ;*but  they  also  select  the 
finest  and  choicest  feed,  which  will  afford  the  great- 
est nutrition  to  your  cows,  and  thus  destroy  your  best 
interest.  Your  division  fences  in  your  pastures,  de- 
signed for  your  cows,  or  cattle,  and  horses,  may  be 
made  light,  with  two  or  three  rails  only,  if  of  a  good 
height;  no  adjoining  crops  of  tillage  will  induce  your 
stock  to  break  out  of  their  enclosure  ;  but  your  fences 
dividing  off  your  pastures  from  your  tillage  enclo- 
sures, cannot  be  too  secure  ;  you  may  then.till  with 
safety,  and  rest  with  security,  without  damage,  or 
anxiety.  Where  water  is  scarce  and  difficult  to  be 
obtained  for  your  pastures,  (when  multiplied  as 
above,)  you  may  select  some  small  stream,  spring, 
or  pond,  or  even  a  reservoir  of  water,  such  as  an  ar- 
tificial pond,  or  large  trough,  supplied  from  some 
neighbouring  spring,  and  enclose  your  pastures  so  as 
to  have  four  or  more  enclosures  centre  in,  or  upon 
the  brook,  pond,  or  reservoir,  and  thus  secure  water 
for  the  whole.  I  have  seen  careful  farmers,  water  50 
or  60  acres,  or  more,  (from  one  pond  or  spring,)  when 
divided  into  separate  enclosures  in  this  manner.  A 
little  experience  will  soon  show  the  value  of  this 
mode  of  improving  pasture  grounds,  and  lead  to  a 
practical  knowledge  highly  interesting,  and  valuable 
to  our  country. 

Plaster,  or   live   ashes,  sown   upon  your  pasture 
grounds,  will  not  only  repay  a  handsome  profit,  by 


THE    farmer's    MANUALi.  69 

increasing  the  quantity  and  value  of  your  feed,  by 
bringing  in  the  finer  grasses,  such  as  white  clover,  Szc. 
but  will  greatly  improve  your  lands  for  a  potatoe  fal- 
low, and  a  succeeding  wheat  crop,  whenever  you  may 
wish  to  take  a  proper  advantage  of  a  rotine  of  crops. 

In  some  parts  of  our  country,  the  pasture  grounds 
are  infested,  and  too  often  overrun  with  the  white 
birch,  thorn,  and  other  noxious  shrubs  ;  my  own  ex- 
perience will  not  enable  me  to  say,  what  are  the 
best  and  most  effectual  methods  of  clearing,  and  pre- 
venting a  successive  growth ;  the  owners  of  such 
lands  might  soon  ascertain  this,  and  carry  it  into 
effect ;  this  is  the  most  slovenly  part  of  our  husband- 
ry, and  must  be  cured.  Bushes  cut  in  the  old  of  the 
moon  in  August,  and  the  sign  in  the  heart,  generally 
die. 

Such  arable  lands,  as  are  worn  down  by  bad  til- 
lage, and  upon  the  dry  and  hilly  parts  of  your  farm, 
you  may  reclaim  by  sowing  white  clover  with  oats, 
two  or  three  pounds  to  the  acre,  and  devote  them  to 
the  pasture  of  your  sheep ;  half  a  bushel  of  plaster, 
or  a  bushel  to  the  acre,  sown  in  the  spring,  or  fall, 
would  richly  repay  the  expense  and  trouble,  both  in 
your  feeding,  as  well  as  in  your  successive  fallow 
and  grain  crops.  The  value  of  this  mode  of  hus- 
bandry in  fattening  your  sheep,  and  bringing  forward 
your  lambs,  I  shall  consider  under  the  article  Stock. 

One  more  hint  upon  pasturing,  will  close  this  num- 
ber. If  your  pasturing  is  short  in  proportion  to  your 
stock  and  arable  lands,  break  up  early  in  the  spring, 
such  fields  as  you  design  to  fallow,  (without  a  fallow 
crop  of  potatoes,)  and  sow  a  bushel  of  spring,  or 
winter  rye,  or  one  and  a  half  or  two  bushels  of  oats 
to  the  acre  ;  they  will  spring  quick  and  yield  you  a 
rich  and  profitable  early  feed  for  your  sheep,  or 
cows;  in  July,  or  August,  you  may  feed  close  and 
cross-plough  as  usual,  without  any  apparent  injury 
to  your  successive  grain  crop ;  particularly  if  you 
dress  your  field  at  sowing,  either  in  the  spring,  or  au- 
tumn, with  one  or  two  bushels  of  plaster  to  the  acre« 


TO  TftE  farmer's  manual. 

This,  amongst  many  others,  goes  to  assist  the  farmer 
to  take  every  possible  advantage  of  the  several  parts 
of  his  farm,  at  each  successive  season  of  the  year, 
with  the  greatest  success,  and  profit. 

Coarse  or  bog  meadow,  by  draining,  may  be  con- 
verted into  pasture  grounds,  which  for  a  time  will  be- 
come more  profitable ;  but  with  a  little  attention  in 
cutting  up  the  bogs,  and  keeping  them  down  smooth, 
with  a  common  bog-hoe,  such  lands  may  be  greatly 
improved  in  their  pasturage  state,  and  by  the  assist- 
ance of  manure,  they  may  be  reduced  to  mowing  of 
a  good  quality,  at  a  very  small  expense  ;  10  bushels 
of  lime  to  the  acre  would  do  well.  If  it  should  be 
necesss^ry  to  carry  your  drains  across  your  plough 
lands,  where  an  open  ditch  would  obstruct  your 
ploughing,  waste  your  grounds,  and  become  foul  with 
noxious  weeds,  which  by  their  seeds  would  also  foul 
your  lands  ;  you  may  lay  a  cheap  covered  drain  to 
prevent  these  evils,  in  the  following  manner,  viz.  dig 
your  drains  with  as  much  descent  as  possible  ;  lay 
upon  the  bottom  an  oak  or  chesnut  plank,  12  inches 
wide  or  more  ;  cover  it  with  two  others,  6  or  8  inches 
wide  or  more  ;  let  the  covering  pieces  rest  together 
at  the  top  over  the  centre  of  the  bottom  plank  ;  fill  up 
your  ditch,  and  till  as  before ;  such  a  drain  is  both 
cheap  and  easy  to  be  laid,  and  also  to  be  kept  free ; 
the  tillage  upon  the  ground  where  it  passes,  will  soon 
repay,  and  if  your  drain  is  conveyed  into  other  mov; 
ing,  this  also  will  richly  repay. 

Arable  Lands • 

In  the  course  of  my  remarks,  I  have  noticed  parti- 
cularly the  subject  of  pasturage,  mowing,  and  the  til- 
lage of  arable  lands,  with  a  reference  to  their  gene- 
ral and  particular  cultivation  ;  both  in  regard  to  their 
present  profit,  and  future  improvement  in  value. 

The  subject  of  arable  lands,  as  regards  the  gene- 
ral improvements  of  a  farm,  shall  now  claim  some 
attention. 


THE    farmer's    manual.  71 

Here,  let  me  repeat  again  my  former  remark.  La- 
bour and  manure,  are  the  basis  of  good  farming. 

Is  your  farm  so  situated,  that  it  may  be  cultivated 
upon  the  principles  of  a  general  rotine  of  crops,  (as 
before  laid  down,)  enter  immediately  upon  this  sys- 
tem, and  let  this  l3e  your  plan : 

1  •  Assign  so  much  of  your  farm  to  the  purposes  of 
the  plough,  as  you  can  manure  well,  either  with  plas- 
r.'r,  or  the  stronger  manures,  as  before  mentioned, 
'  Fce  article  Manure*) 

2.  Keep  no  more  lands  under  grass,  for  mowing, 
than  you  can  consume  upon  your  farm  with  profita- 
ble stock,  unless  in  the  neighbourhood  of  some  large 
town,  where  the  sale  of  your  hay  will  buy  you  ma- 
nure. 

3.  Keep  no  more  stock  upon  your  farm,  than  you 
oan  keep  well,  either  by  pasturage,  or  soiling,  and 
%v  the  following  reasons  : 

1.  Because  one  acre  of  plough  land,  well  manured, 
will  yield  twice  or  thrice  the  product,  as  when  tilled 
without  manure.  For  instance,  suppose  you  have 
20  acres  of  rye  and  wheat  fallows,  in  a  steady  way. 
Put  5  acres  to  clover,  with  plaster,  the  first  year; 
and  put  5  acres  more  to  clover  the  second  year ;  cut  the  • 
first  5  acres  of  clover,  and  feed  it  upon  your  farm ; 
continue  to  feed  out  your  clover  upon  your  farm,  and 
put  the  dung  your  clover  has  made,  upon  such  part  of 
the  remaining  10  acres  as  may  need  it  most;  sow 
grain  as  usual,  and  the  next  year,  viz.  the  third  year, 
stock  down  5  acres  more  with  clover,  and  turn  in  the 
first  ^iwe  acres  of  clover,  which  you  stocked  down,  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  third  5  acres  you  have  now 
stocked  down.  *  Thus  you  will  have  10  acres  of  clo- 
ver, and  10  tinder  the.  plough,  or  in  grain  in  a  steady 
way.  After  one  rotation  in  this  way,  your  10  acres 
kept  under  the  plough,  will  yield  you  more  grain,  and 
of  a  better  quality  than  the  20  did  before ;  continue 
this  practice,  and,  in  a  few  rotations,  the  10  acres  will 
yield  you  double,  or  treble  to  what  the  whole  20  did 


72  THE    farmer's    manual. 

at  the  first,  in  the  old  way.  Should  you  increase 
your  stock,  in  this  way,  beyond  the  extent  of  your 
pasturage,  niultiply  your  pasturage,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, by  division  fences,  {see  pasturing,)  and  convert 
a  part  of  your  clover  fields  to  a  temporary  pasturage  ; 
this  will  improve  their  quality  when  under  tillage 
again.  In  a  few  years,  you  may  derive  more  profit 
from  the  stock  onli/  upon  your  farm  in  this  way,  than 
the  whole  product  yielded  before,  and  a  double  profit 
upon  your  tillage  grounds  at  the  same  time,  together 
with  the  aggregate  rise  upon  the  value  of  your  farm 
generally ;  in  addition  to  all  this,  you  will  live  better 
and  much  easier ;  try  it  and  see. 

I  am  sensible  that  it  will  require  some  capital  to 
enter  largely  upon  this  method  of  farming ;  let  this 
be  no  bar  to  the  system  ;  if  you  possess  the  means, 
enter  upon  it  with  spirit  and  liberality  ;  its  principles 
,are  founded  upon  the  broad  basis  of  common  sense 
and  common  practice,  both  in  England  and  America  ; 
it  will  repay  you  faithfully  and  liberally.  If  your 
means  are  small,  enter  upon  it  by  little  and  little,  as 
you  can  proceed  without  getting  into  debt,  (I  here 
repeat  again,  farmers  must  never  be  in  debt,)  When 
you  buy  stock  for  your  purposes,  buy  cows  ;  they  will 
increase  your  stock  with  the  least  expense,  and  the 
best^  as  well  as  most  immediate  profit. 

It  is  a  common  reflection  of  our  country,  upon  the 
general  system  of  bad  farming,  now  in  common  prac- 
tice, that  we  run  over  a  great  deal  of  land,  half  fenc- 
ed, half  ploughed  and  half  tilled,  at  great  labour,  toil 
and  expense,  without  order,  calculation,  or  method ; 
and  finally,  without  profit;  and  that  we  obstinately 
persist  in  this,  hecdiuse  ouv  fathers ^M  so  before  us. 
The  truth  of  these  reflections  I  acknowledge,  and 
haVe  offered  a  system  which  will  completely  correct 
the  error ;  but  the  reflection  upon  our  fathers,  I  re- 
sent with  spirit  and  indignation,  as  both  cruel  and 
unjust.  Our  fathers  were  the  wisest,  most  virtuous, 
hardy,  industrious,  economical  and   valiant  race  of 


THE    FARMKn'rf    MANUAL^  73 

men,  that  ever  constituted  a  community.  Would  you 
realize  the  truth  of  this  remark,  look  at  the  face  of 
the  country  which  they  subdued  ;  the  foes  they  van- 
quished; the  civil,  religious  and  literary  institu- 
tions they  founded,  and  transmitted  down  to  us,  and 
which  we  so  richly  enjoy.  These  reflections  upon 
our  fathers,  are  used  indiscriminately  to  prejudice 
our  minds  against  the  characters  of  our  fathers  gene- 
rally, and  as  much  against  their  excellent  institutions, 
as  against  their  system  of  husbandry.  Vindicate 
their  excellent  characters,  by  preserving  their  wise 
institutions,  as  well  as  by  correcting  their  system  of 
husbandry ;  not  because  this  was  bad  in  tliem,  but 
because  it  has  become  bad  in  us,  under  the  changes 
the  face  of  the  country  has  undergone  since  their 
days,  and  under  our  bad  tillage.  Let  us  remember, 
that  this  system  of  husbandry  which  I  have  laid 
down,  would  have  no  more,  and  no  better,  applied  to 
our  fathers,  than  to  the  present  inhabitants  of  the  fer- 
tile wilds  of  Illinois.  The  soil  was  alike  with  both, 
in  a  rich  virgin  state,  the  more  corn  they  could  plant, 
and  the  more  wheat  they  could  sow,  the  more  profits 
they  derived  from  their  farms;  so,  that  what  in  them, 
under  that  rich  state  of  soil,  was  good  farming,  has 
become  to  us,  under  the  exhausted  state  of  the  soil, 
bad  farming.  Let  this  apology  pass  to  \he  credit  of 
our  fathers ;  but  let  it  not  be  used  as  a  cloak  to  cover 
the  obstinate  practices  of  imitation,  in  any  of  their 
descendants.  The  times  are  changed  ;  the  face  of 
the  country  is  changed  ;  the  quality  of  the  soil  has 
changed  •  and  if  we  will  live  as  well,  and  become  as 
rich  and  respectable  as  our  fathers,  we  must  cultivate 
their  virtues ;  but  abandon  their  system  of  farming, 
and  reclaim  their  lands,  which  have  become  exhaust- 
ed by  bad  tillage,  in  passing  down  to  us ;  this  cau 
easily  be  done  by  labour  and  manure,  under  a  regu- 
lar rotinc  of  crops,  with  large  and  flourishing  stocks 
of  cows,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  with  as  few  horses 
as  the   nature   of  things   and   rircumstoncc?  of  on*' 


?4  THE    farmer's    manual, 

farms  will  possibly  admit.  The  horse  is  a  useful  and 
valuable  animal  in  the  service  of  man,  and  his  ser- 
vices are  indispensable  to  his  comfort  and  con- 
venience ;  but  he  is  the  most  unprofitable  stock  upon 
your  farms. 

1.  Because  his  high  price  exceeds  all  proportion 
to  his  productive  labours. 

2.  His  expense  in  raising,  exceeds  all  probable 
calculations  upon  the  profits  of  his  sales  in  market. 

3.  His  support  requires  such  feed  as  robs  your 
dairy  ;  your  beef  cattle  and  hogs,  for  fattening. 

4.  He  yields  you  no  substitute  for  your  dairy,  beef 
and  pork. 

5.  He  is  more  liable  to  disease  and  accidents  than 
other  stock,  and  at  his  death,  becomes  a  dead  loss. 
He  does  not,  like  the  sheep,  even  leave  a  fleece  in 
payment. 

Whenever  you  keep,  or  raise  a  horse,  let  him  be  a 
good  one  ;  such,  and  such  only,  will  afford  you  any 
profit,  either  upon  your  farm,  or  in  market. 

I  shall  conclude  my  remarks  upon  arable  lands, 
with  the  following  observations  of  Sir  John  Sinclair. 

'*  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  alternate, 
or  convertible  husbandry,  cannot  be  too  much  dwelt 
)n.  None  but  those  who  have  tried  it,  can  be  fully 
aware  of  the  vast  improvements  effected,  by  laying 
down  old  ploughed  lands  into  grass,  as  well  as  con- 
verting old  pasture  lands  into  arable  ;  {see  my  re- 
marks^ article  Pasture.)  If  one  million  of  acres  of 
old  tillage  lands  were  gradually  laid  down  into  her- 
bage, and  the  like  extent  of  old  pasture,  broken  up 
and  put  under  a  judicious  rotine  of  crops,  it  would 
T)robably  be  the  m.eans  of  supplying  the  public 
market  with  two  million  of  stones  of  beef  and  mut- 
ton additional,  and  three  millions  of  quarters  of 
grain.  Under  that  system,  the  crops  are  always 
abundant,  and  the  soil  is  kept  in  a  constant  state  of 
increasing  fertility." — Code  of  husbandri/. 

Again,  *'  If  one  half  of  a  farm  be  kept  under  artifi- 


THE    TARMEr's    manual.  75 

eial  grasses  and  other  ereen  crops,  as  much  live 
stock  may  be  supported  and  fattened  upon  their 
produce,  as  if  the  whole  farm  were  in  pasture  ;  while 
the  other  half,  enriched  by  the  large  quantity  of  dung 
produced  by  the  consumption  of  these  crops,  m\l 
furnish  as  much  disposable  produce,  for  supplying 
the  markets  with  the  various  sorts  of  grains,  as  if  the 
whole  farm  had  been  kept  under  tillage.  Hence  the 
superior  advantages  and  profit,  derived  from  a  con- 
junction of  stock  and  corn  husbandry ;  by  such  a 
union,  the  grand  system  of  husbandry  can  be  more 
extensively  and  substantially  improved,  than  upon 
any  other  plan  hitherto  discovered." — Sinclair^  Code, 


JULY. 

Indian-Corn  and  Haying. 

You  doubtless  have  half  hilled  your  Indian-corn, 
and  cut  your  clover  in  the  month  of  June.  Every 
careful  farmer  will  now  dress  his  hills  with  ashes,  or 
plaster,  to  render  his  earing  heavy  and  full,  and 
get  through  with  his  hilling  as  far  as  possible,  before 
his  English  mowing  claims  his  attention  :  any  inter- 
ruption in  time  of  haying,  is  both  unsafe  and  perplex- 
ing. Some  farmers  delay  their  hilling  until  haying, 
to  husband  time,  calculating  to  hill  when  the  weather 
is  foul  and  unfit  for  haying  ;  this  is  the  worst  calcula- 
tion possible.  The  damage  to  your  corn  by  sucli 
delay,  is  bad  ;  to  hoe  or  hill  when  your  land  is  heavy. 
or  wet,  is  bad  ;  it  leaves  your  land  tight,  excludes 
the  free  circulation  of  air  to  the  roots  of  your  corn, 
and  is  a  waste  in  the  delay  of  hoeing,  both  in  time 
and  strength  ;  all  which  are  bad.  Select,  therefore, 
the  finest  weather  for  your  several  hoeings  ;  your  land 
will  plough  easy,  hoe  easy,  your  weeds  will  wilt  and 
die  in  the  sun,  and  vour  corn  will  be  refreshed  with  r- 


t>  TH£    FARMER'S    MANCALc 

warm,  loose,  or  light  earth,  which  wiil  readily  receive 
the  air  and  moisture,  to  nourish  your  corn.  The 
manner  in  which  these  unite,  or  combine  in  produc- 
ing vegetation,  I  have  considered  under  the  Article 
Gypsum. 

Your  corn  being  dressed  and  hilled  ;  watch  your 
English  meadows  critically  ;  cut  your  English  spire- 
grass  when  green,  as  soon  as  the  blossom  appears, 
it  is  then  the  best  of  hay  ;  if  you  sufler  it  to  stand 
until  the  seed  begins  to  form,  and  the  stalk  turns  yel- 
low, it  becomes  tough  and  wiery,  and  from  being  the 
best,  it  becomes  very  soon,  in  this  state,  the  worst  of 
hay;  therefore,  I  repeat,  watch  it  critically,  and 
when  it  comes  to  perfection,  suffer  no  possible  avoca- 
tion to  delay  your  cutting. 

Your  timothy  claims  also  alike  attention  ;  this,  when 
cut  in  early  blossom,  is  the  best  horse,  or  stock  hay, 
next  to  the  English  spire-grass,  and  by  some  is  pre- 
ferred for  horses,  even  to  this  ;  but  if  you  suffer  it 
to  stand  until  the  blossom  falls  off,  and  the  seed  be- 
gins to  form,  and  the  stalk,  or  even  the  under  leaves, 
begin  to  turn,  the  true  value  of  your  crop  is  lost,  and 
your  hay  becomes  comparatively  bad ;  therefore,  cut 
your  English  and  timothy  when  in  blossom,  and  cure, 
by  spreading  into  three  swath  winrows,  all  swaths 
cut  before  noon  ;  turn  it  lightly  as  often  as  your  time 
and  hands  will  permit ;  and  get  into  cock  by  5  or  G 
o'clock,  all  the  hay  spread  upon  your  field  ;  this  is 
both  safe  and  profitable,  both  as  to  time  and  expense, 
as  well  as  in  the  value  of  your  hay.  You  may 
take  a  second  cutting  to  advantage  from  your  English 
spire-grass,  but  never  from  your  t^imothy,  or  herds- 
grass,  without  an  injury  to  the  crop  the  succeeding 
year ;  therefore,  be  content  to  take  the  second  growth, 
by  feeding  lightly,  and  suffer  as  great  a  coat  to  lie  on 
the  ground  over  the  winter  as  possible ;  the  next  yer*r 
will  repay  you  with  interest,    , 

Your  common  meadows  of  mixed,  wild  and  coarse 
grasses,  will  claim  youv  attention  in  res^ular  sncre- 


THE  farmer's  manual.  77 

sion,  after  you  have  turned  up  and  planted  with  po- 
tatoes such  rich  swards  as  you  design  for  wheat  til- 
lage in  autumn,  or  for  spring  and  summer  tillage 
the  next  season  ;  (be  sure  to  accomplish  this  by  the 
fMiddle  of  July,  if  possible.) 

When  your  potatoes  are  planted,  and  your  harvest 
is  cut  and  housed,  enter  with  spirit  upon  your  late 
haying ;  let  nothing  interrupt  yor.r  progress ;  if  the 
weather  is  foul,  but  not  rainy,  continue  to  mow ;  when 
the  sun  appears,  your  swaths  will  be  ready  for  turn- 
ing, and  in  this  way,  your  haying  will  progress  rapid- 
ly ;  unless  you  are  slovenly,  by  putting  off  the  evil 
day,  and  prophesying  smooth  things,  and  leave  your 
hay  in  the  winrow,  or  spread  about  your  fields,  until 
the  thundergusts  and  storms  overtake  you  ;  your  bu- 
siness is  then  obstructed  and  thrown  into  confusion, 
your  expenses  increased,and  your  hay  ruined.  These 
evils,  a  careful  farmer  always  avoids,  by  keeping  his 
hay  always  under  his  control,  ver^/  exiraordinaries  ex- 
cepted, and  thus  his  hay  is  good  and  commands  the  first 
price  in  market ;  his  barns  are  sweet,  his  expenses 
are  light,  and  his  purse  is  heavy. 

As  soon  as  your  harvesting  is  through,  plough  in 
such  parts  of  your  richest  stubble  fields  as  yfiu  in- 
tend for  turnips  ;  dress  your  turnip  ground  with  plas- 
ter, live,  or  leached  ashes,  or  well  rotted  manure 
from  your  stercorary,  and  sow^,  and  harrow,  or  bush 
in,  one  pound  of  seed  to  the  acre.  .Thisprocess,  will 
insure  you  a  good  crop,  and  guard  your  soil  against 
the  bad  ^effects  of  this  exhausting  root.  If  you  can 
take  advantage  of  feeding  oft'  your  turnip  crop  with 
sheep,  by  hurdles,  upon  the  field,  you  cannot  raise 
too  many  ;  the  feeding  will  enrich  your  soil  and  your 
flock ;  but  if  your  calculation  is  to  pull  for  market, 
you  cannot  raise  too  few;  the  profits  upon  the  crop 
will  not  repay  the  expense  of  tillage  and  damage  to 
your  land. 

You  have  doubdess  given  your  buck-wheat  lands 
one  fallow  ploughing  in  June  ;  cross-plough  and  sow 

7* 


78  Tflfi  FARMER^S  MANUAL. v 

half,  or  three  quarters  of  a  bushel,  or  if  your  lancl 
is  poor,  one  bushel  to  the  acre  at  this  time ;  it  is  a 
poor  crop  when  considered  in  point  of  tillage,  (unless 
rolled  down  and  ploughed  in  as  manure,  for  a  fallow 
for  winter  grain,)  or  for  the  value  of  its  grain  ;  but  it 
makes  up  one  of  the  varieties  of  husbandry,  will  an» 
swer  upon  some  poor  soils,  in  place  of  sor^ve  other 
crop,  and  may  witk  safety  precede  any  of  the  crops 
in  a  regular  rotinc,  excepting  Indian-corn  ;  this  grain 
will  not  flourish  after  buck-wheat. 

No  insect  will  injure  your  buck-wheat  crop  ;  bu 
your  turnips  are  often  exposed  to  the  destructive  fly, 
which  frequently  ruin  the  crop*  To  secure  your  tur- 
nip crop  decidedly  against  the  fly,  steep  your  seed 
12  or  24  hours,  before  sowing,  in  fish,  or  train-oil ; 
Jraia  oft*  the  oil  from  the  seed,  and  roll  the  seed  in 
plaster;  this  will  separate  the  seed  from  the  glutinous 
adhesion  of  the  oil,  render  the  casts  free,  and  enrich 
your  crop ;  all  other  steeps  at  times  are  said  to  fail ; 
this  is  not  only  cheap  and  easy,  but  is  said  never 
to  fail ;  it  will  always  preserve  the  crop. 

The  value  of  turnips  as  feed,  either  upon  the 
ground,  or  when  pulled  and  housed,  either  for  sheep, 
^r  cattle,  I  shall  consider  at  large,  under  the  article 
Stock,  when  the  season  for  tillage  is  over,  and  the 
:armer  has  more  leisure  to  read,  and  when  his  stock 
will  necessarily  claim  -his  particular  attention. 

Wheat. 

I  have  said  very  little  upon  the  cultivation  of  wheat 
by  the  use  of  compost,  barn-yard,  or  other  strong  ma- 
nures ;  they  generally  answer  well  upon  a  moderate 
soil,  for  one  or  two  crops;  but  when  continued  upon 
die  same  fields,  or  used  upon  a  rich  soi!,  the  crops  of 
wheat  are  generally  ruined  by  the  rust  on  the  straw, 
(commonly  called  the  blast.)  Farmers  arc  all  full 
well  acquainted  with  the  fact;  but  even  the  best  wri- 
ters are  not  agreed  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  rust 
is  produced.     They  are  generally  agreed  in  this,  thc\t 


THE   FARiMER's   manuaI.  7^ 

at  the  time  of  the  filling  of  the  kernel  in  the  ear,  the 
warm  rains,  or  warm  moist  weather,  cause  an  exhala- 
tion from  the  surface  of  the  earth  on  which  the  wheat 
grows,  which  lodges  upon  the  straw,  and  forms  fun» 
gus  excrescences,  of  the  toadstool  kind,  and  that  these 
excrescences  absorb  the  juices  of  the  straw,  for  their 
support,  and  thus  check  their  natural  course  to  the 
support  of  the  kernel,  which  causes  it  to  shrink,  op 
blast. 

Remarks. 

So  much  of  this  is  true,  that  the  rust  on  wheat  gene- 
rally commences  at  this  time,  and  under  these  circum- 
stances, viz.  in  warm  rains,  or  along  season  of  warm, 
moist  weather.  But  does  not  this  combination  of  heat 
and  moisture  at  this  time,  bring  into  action  the  rich 
manures,  and  thus  force  into  the  straw,  (which  has 
now  finished  its  growth,)  more  juices  than  the  kernel, 
(already  filled  out)  can  take  up,  or  than  can  pass  off 
hy  natural  perspiration,  or  evaporation?  and  do  not 
these  juices  force  open,  or  burst  the  straw,  and  thus 
suffer  the  sap  to  exude  through  these  small  fissures, 
or  openings,  or  even  through  the  natural  pores  of  the 
straw,  or  stalk  ?  and  do  not  these  exudations,  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  become  glutinous,  and  form  that 
excrescence  upon  the  straw  called  rust,  and  thus  rob 
the  kernel  of  its  natural  support,  and  cause  it  to  shrink, 
or  blast  ?  It  is  not  so  essential  in  this  instance  to 
know  the  manner  in  which  the  effect  is  produced,  as 
to  know  the  true  cause  and  the  best  remedy.  The 
true  cause  is  the  application  of  rich  manures  to  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  upon  a  strong,  or  rich  soil  ;  or 
their  too  frequent  application^  or  loo  long  continu- 
ance upon  light,  or  moderate  soils ;  both  are  danger- 
ous, and  admit  of  but  one  remedy,  and  even  that  a 
partial  one.  Cut  down  your  wheat  as  soon  as  the 
kernel  becomes  affected,  and  begins  lo  shrink,  and 
let  it  cure  in  the  gavil ;  the  exuding  fissures,  and 
pores,  will  immediately    close,    and  the  remaining 


80  THE  farmer's  manual. 

juices  will  support  the  kernel  in  the  same  state  as 
when  you  cut  the  grain ;  it  will  rather  swell  than 
shrink,  after  cutting.  This  is  always  safe,  and  must 
not  be  neglected,  if  you  regard  the  value  of  your  crop. 
The  same  causes  often  produce  the  same  effects  upon 
rye,  and  the  same  remedy  will  always  prove  effec- 
tual. I  have  said  nothing  in  particular  of  the  seve- 
ral kinds  of  wheat  in  common  use.  I  have  sown  the 
white  bald  wheat  and  the  red- bearded  wheat,  gene- 
rally, and  when  free  from  rust,  they  have  done  well*. 
The  red-bearded  spring  wheat,  when  the  seed  can  be 
obtained  from  Canada,  or  Vermont,  I  have  found  to  an- 
swer well,  for  one  or  two  years ;  but  never  the  third, 
from  the  growth  of  the  same  seed  ;  it  then  runs  out, 
and  must  be  renewed  from  the  northern  country.  I 
have  generally  found  my  spring  wheat  more  inclined 
to  smut  than  the  winter  wheat,  unless  I  use  the  pre- 
caution of  steeping  and  rinsing  it,  as  before  observed. 
The  stiff  straw  wheat,  which  is  now  coming  into  use, 
may  become  a  safe  crop  against  the  Hessian  fly, 
which  alone  will  render  it  a  great  acquisition  to  our 
country ;  should  it  prove  equally  safe  against  lodg- 
ing, when  grown  too  stout  and  rank,  as  well  as 
against  the  rust,  and  the  fly,  it  will  soon  become  of 
universal  use — upon  this  we  hope  much  ;  but  I  can 
say  nothing  from  experience,  and  have  seen  no  au- 
thentic experiments  on  which  I  can  rely. 

Steeping  and  rinsing  seed-wheat  to  prevent  rust, 
have  been  fully  noticed.  Several  other  remedies  are 
noticed  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  as  practised  in  England, 
viz.  selecting  the  red  wheats  generally,  as  being 
hardier  than  the  white.  Sowing  earlier  than  the 
common  mode,  say  on  or  about  the  1st  of  September, 
instead  of  1st  of  October,  that  the  wheat  may  become 
ripe  before  the  usual  times  of  rust  come  on.  Sowing 
thicker  also  at  the  same  time,  he  remarks,  will  some- 

*  la  all  Uie  recent  experiments  in  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Hart- 
lord  County,  a  great  preference  has  been  justly  given  to  tlic  red- 
bcarde^l  wheat. 


mE  farmer's  manual*  81 

limes  answer.  Exchange  of  seed,  either  from  fo- 
reign countries,  or  different  sections  of  the  same 
country,  will  sometimes  prevent  rust,  and  will  other- 
wise well  pay  the  expense  and  trouble.  Crossing 
ihe  different  kinds  of  wheat,  by  sowing  the  seed  com- 
mixed upon  the  same  field,  and  thus  obtaining  a  new 
kind ;  this  will  generally  prevent  the  rust. 

The  same  writer  recommends  a  top-dressing  upon 
wheat  of  sea^salt,  or  a  manuring  of  salt  ploughed  in 
with  the  wheat,  or  even  with  a  turnip  crop  as  pre- 
paratory to  a  wheat  crop,  as  a  sure  remedy  against 
the  rust.  Whenever  lands  become  too  strong  by  the 
rich  manures,  they  will  always  occasion  the  rust,  and 
they  should  be  invariably  tilled  with  corn,  or  pota- 
toes, as  a  preparatory  crop  for  wheat,  and  then  dress- 
ed with  salt,  or  plaster  only ;  but  never  with  the 
rich  manures  ;  this  process  will  generally  succeed,  if 
the  seed  is  pure.  The  same  writer  goes  on  to  ob- 
serve, that  wheat  sown  with  rye,  by  way  of  meslin 
(so  called)  is  never  subjected  to  rust,  either  in  Eng- 
land, or  in  Italy,  and  closes  all  his  ingenius  remarks 
upon  the  causes  of  rust,  with  this  conclusion,  '*  That 
the  disease  is  taken  up  at  the  roots."  This  conclu- 
sion goes  to  confirm  my  former  remarks,  which  were 
drawn  from  my  own  experience  and  observation. 

The  same  writer  has  given  us  some  nice  calcula* 
lions  upon  the  value  of  straw  generally,  as  well  as  the 
comparative  value  of  the  several  kinds  of  straw,  and 
draws  this  general  conclusion  ;  that  straw  generally, 
cither  for  feeding,  or  litter,  is  of  one  third,  or  one 
half  the  value  of  hay,  and  should  be  as  carefully 
preserved,  and  used  for  both  these  purposes  ;  but  ob- 
serves, at  the  same  time,  that  straw,  used  for  feed, 
should  be  given  out  as  soon  as  threshed,  otherwise  it 
will  become  dry  and  of  little  value. 

Remarks. 

Straw  when  used  for  feeding  cattle,  is  most  valua- 
ble when  fed  out  with  clover,  or  wheft  sprinkled  with 
.strong  pickle,  and  fed  alone ;  unless  when  cut  fine 


S2  THE    FARMER^S    MANUAL. 

and  mixed  with  provinder  for  horses,  or  mixed  with 
boiled  flax-seed  for  fattening  beef-cattle,  as  will  be 
shown  by  Mr.  Landon  of  Litchfield.  All  these  modes 
of  using  straw,  fully  show  its  value  as  an  object  of 
importance  to  the  careful  farmer  ;  but  the  improve- 
ment of  Mr.  Landon,  gives  it  a  value  of  the  first  im- 
portance. When  straw  is  used  for  litter,  either  for  • 
hogs,  or  cattle,  or  horses,  it  is  generally  allowed  that 
one  ton  (the  usual  product  of  one  acre  of  wheat  or 
rye)  will  produce  four  tons  of  manure  ;  this  will  dress 
one  acre  of  corn,  or  potatoes,  in  the  hill,  and  thus 
give  a  profit  on  the  crops  of  10  or  15  dollars  ;  where- 
as 5  dollars  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  market  price 
for  straw  for  feeding :  leaving  a  balance  in  favour  of 
littering,  of  3  to  10  dollars,  besides  the  benefit  from 
the  warmth  derived  by  the  cattle  and  horses :  allow- 
ing the  increased  value  of  the  land  to  pay  for  carting, 
&c.  By  this  value  of  straw,  when  used  for  litter, 
may  be  seen  the  value  of  stubble  when  mown,  and 
carted  into  the  hog-pen,  or  barn-yard,  or  even  housed 
for  litter  for  the  winter ;  the  undergrowth  which  gene- 
rally may  be  mown  with  the  stubble,  will  both  in- 
crease the  quantity  and  vahie  of  the  stubble,  for  litter, 
if  applied  in  its  green  state  to  the  hog- pen,  or  barn- 
yard, or  even  cured  and  housed  for  the  winter's  litter. 
The  difference  between  the  value  of  such  stubble, 
when  mown  and  used  as  above,  and  when  left  to  waste 
on  the  ground,  will  not  admit  of  a  comparison.  Try 
it  and  see.  Although  the  practice  of  ridging  in  stub- 
ble and  its  undergrowth,  immediately  after  harvest, 
may  be  accounted  good  husbandry,  especially  when 
labour  is  difficult  to  be  obtained,  yet  if  the  farmer 
can  find  time  to  collect  his  stubble  as  above,  he  will 
always  find  it  to  his  interest,  provided  it  be  done  im- 
mediately after  harvest,  before  the  straw  has  suffered 
waste. 

Tillage, 

Should  you  have  been  under  the  necessity  of  driv- 
ing your  arable  lands  too  fast  with  Indian-corn,  or 


THE    FARMER^S    MANUAL.  8a 

Other  exhausting  crops,  without  resting  and  refresh- 
ing them  by  a  regular  rotine,  or  succession  of  crops, 
and  thus  have  reduced  your  fall  jw  grounds  below 
the  advantage  of  tillage  with  a  potatoe  fallow  ;  you 
may  recover  such  lands  in  one  season,  by  sowing 
early  in  June,  or  July,  from  one  to  two  bushels  of 
buck-wheat  to  the  acre,  upon  a  deep  ploughing,  and 
when  your  crop  is  in  full  bloom  in  July,  or  August, 
roll  down  the  buck-wheat  with  a  common  farm  roller, 
or  where  this  is  wanting,  you  may  perform  the  same 
operation  with  the  back  of  your  harrow,  (giving  it  an 
additional  weight  as  occasion  may  require.)  This 
should  be  done  by  laying  off  your  field  into  lands, 
as  you  intend  to  plough,  so  that  your  plough  may  not 
be  choaked  by  crossing,  or  meeting  the  heads  of 
your  buck-wheat.  Care  should  be  taken  to  bury 
your  crop  as  deep  as  possible,  that  the  buck-wheat 
may  all  be  covered,  and  the  depth  of  your  soil  im- 
proved by  the  fermentation.  The  heads  of  the  buck- 
wheat which  may  appear  uncovered  upon  the  field, 
may  be  prevented  from  seeding  by  one  or  two  light 
harrowings.  This  crop  will  undergo  a  strong  fermen- 
tation, and  prepare  your  old  tired  fallows  for  a  suc- 
cessful crop  of  winter  grain.  If  your  field  is  of  a 
light  sandy  soil,  you  may  sow  rye,  or  even  wheat 
upon  the  tops  of  your  buck-wheat  furrows.  In  the 
season  of  sowing,  drag  in  your  seed  with  a  long 
toothed  drag,  or  cover  your  seed  with  the  plough, 
as  you  choose.  If  you  have  a  clay,  or  stiff  soil,  you 
may  cross- plough  in  August,  and  proceed  in  the  usual 
way  of  sowing;  both  will  answer  well.  This  pro- 
cess wyi  prepare  your  field  for  a  clover  crop,  (see 
article  Clover^)  which  may  be  cut  for  hay,  or  rolled 
and  ploughed  in  when  in  full  bloom,  after  the  manner 
of  the  buck-wheat,  and  thus  prepare  your  fields  for 
any  successful  tillage  you  may  choose.  1  cannot  say 
from  experience,  that  the  English  white  potatoes  may 
be  planted  with  success  upon  the  top  of  your  buck- 
wheat dressing;   but  as  the  potatoes  will  not  exhaust 


84  THE    f'ARMER's    MANUAL, 

your  soil,  or  lessen  the  value  of  your  wheat,  or  rye 
crop,  the  experiment  may  be  tried  with  safety,  and 
with  strong  probability  of  success.  Before  that  most 
valuable  article,  plaster  of  Paris,  came  into  use,  or 
the  mode  of  tillage,  by  deep  ploughing,  with  buck- 
wheat, or  clover,  were  known  as  above,  I  have  recov- 
ered my  old  tired  fallows  by  suffering  them  to  lie  for 
pasturing,  2  or  3  years  ;  and  then,  after  a  summer's 
feeding,  have  turned  over  the  sward,  and  sown  rye 
with  good  success  upon  one  ploughing,  when  1  could 
catch  a  dry  seedtime,  so  as  to  render  my  field  mel- 
low with  the  harrow  ;  and  with  bad  crops  under  a  wet 
seed-time,  when  my  land  was  heavy.  This  mode  of 
tillage  would  be  greatly  improved  by  sowing  one  or 
two  bushels  of  plaster  upon  the  first  year's  pasturing, 
and  by  tilling  v/ith  a  potatoe  fallow  with  plaster, 
when  you  plo'ugh  up  your  field.  If  you  sow  plaster 
broad-cast  upon  your  furrows,  before  you  plant  your 
potatoes,  it  will  best  improve  both  your  potatoe  and 
rye  crop,  or  if  you  choose  to  sow  plaster,  cither  in 
or  upon  the  hills  of  your  potatoes,  you  may  sow  your 

f)laster  with  your  grain  at  seed-time,  and  cover  it 
ightly  with  the  harrow,  or  upon   your  grain  without 
covering;  both  will  answer  well. 

How  to  preserve  your  lands  in  the  highest  possi- 
ble state  of  cultivation,  at  the  least  possible  expense, 
I. have  attempted  to  show  under  the  article  Rotine, 
(V.'  change  of  Crops. 

Harvest, 

For  this  most  important  business,  you  have  had  u 
whole  season,  or  I  may  say  nearly  a  whole  year  to 
prepare.  1  presume,  not  one  single  farmer  has  left 
this  employment  to  be  attended  to  collaterally,  when 
some  other  jobs  may  be  finished ;  but  has  had  his 
eye  iipon  it  as  a  work  of  the  first  moment,  and  is  now 
ready  with  hands,  and  tools,  and  teams,  provided. 
Your  rye  harvest  first  claims  your  attention ;  is  the 


THE  farmer's  manual.  85 

atraw  all  turned,  excepting  at  the  joints  ?  and  is  your 
kernel  become  so  hard,  that  you  cannot  mash  it  be- 
tween your  thumb  and  finger  ?  or  is  the  straw  below 
the  ear  becom*^  so  dry,  that  no  juice  can  be  forced 
out  by  twisting  it  ?  you  may  put  in  the  sickle,  if  the 
weather  is  fine,  and  cut,  and  bind,  and  shock  as  you 
go,  generally  ;  but  if  your  stalk  is  very  stout",  and 
your  ear  full  and  heavy,  let  your  gavils  lie  until  the 
after  part  of  the  day,  (thundorgusts  excepted  ;)  you 
may  then  bind  and  shock,  stack,  or  cart,  with-  safety, 
provided  you  house  your  grain  where  it  can  have 
free  air,  or  your  mo\vs  do  not  become  too  large  ;  in 
this  case,  your  grain  will  need  more  curing.  The 
advantages  of  beginning  early  upon  your  harvest, 
are  several. 

1.  Your  grain  will  yield  more  and  whiter  flour; 
will  waste  less  by  shelling  ;  your  harvesting  will  be 
expedited,  so  as  to  prevent  the  waste  of  shelling, 
by  having  your  last  cuttings  become  too  ripe,  as  is 
common  when  the  first  cuttings  become  fully  ripe,  at 
the  commencement  of  harvest.  You  will  have  more 
time  to  attend  to  your  turnip  crops,  upon  your  stub- 
ble lands,  before  the  wheat  harvest,  or  after  the 
wheat  harvest.  You  will  also  be  in  readiness  for 
your  wheat  harvest,  which  you  may  cut  and  manage, 
as  in  your  rye  harvest.  If  you  take  the  same  prf<>.au- 
tions  against  heat  in  your  grain,  as  in  your  clover,  by 
having  your  mows  ventilated  underneath,  with  proper 
openings  up  through  the  mow,  for  the  circulation  of 
air,  the  trouble  will  be  trifling,  compared  with  the  safe- 
ty and  benefit.  When  your  harvest  is  housed,  you 
have  secured  the  prime  object  of  your  farm;  bread — 
this  is  truly  the  staff"  of  life;  the  basis  of  good  husband- 
ry, and  good  living. 

If  you  discover  a  rust  upon  the  straw  of  your  rye,  or 
wheat,  as  is  commom  upon  lands  highly  manured  with 
rich  compost,  or  yard  dung,  you  may  conclude  vegeta- 
tion is  checked,  and  that  your  grain,  either  begins,  or 
will  soon  begin,  to  shrink. 

8 


^0  THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL. 

Lose  no  time  with  your  sickle  ;  cut  down  your  graia, 
if  the  kernel  is  formed  into  a  consistence;  the  juices 
m  the  stalk  will  afford  more  nutriment  to  the  kereel  in 
the  gavil,  than  w^hen  standing,  and  your  crop  will.be 
saved  from  ruin.  This  method  is  always  safe,  and 
must  never  be  omitted.  When  your  straw  is  cured, 
shock,  stack,  or  house  it,  as  before.  One  or  two  days,  in 
good  weather,  will  cure  your  grain  in  this  state  ;  but  if 
the  weather  proves  foul,  bind  and  stack,  or  shock,  for 
security,  and  open  your  stacks  in  fair  weather,  until 
they  are  fit  to  house.  Every  consideration  must  give 
place  to  the  saving  of  your  crop.  Ridge  in  with  one 
bout  ridges,  such  stubble  lands  as  you  design  to  winter 
Tallow  for  spring  crops. 


AUGUST. 

Your  harvest  is  housed,  your  late  potatoes  art 
planted,  and  your  turnips  are  generally  sown.  Your 
late  haying,  and  your  oats,  now  claim  your  particular 
attention.  Proceed  with  your  late  haying  as  with 
your  English  and  timothy;  if  you  gather  it  in  a  care- 
less and  slovenly  manner,  and  suffer  it  to  be  exposed 
to  tf^e  rains,  as  Jbeing  of  little  value,  and  not  worth  a 
careful  expense,  it  will  repay  you  in  your  own  way, 
and  will  become  truly  of  little  value  ;  but  if  you  col- 
lect and  house  it  with  proper  attention,  it  will  be 
the  more  valuable,  and  will  repay  you  with  interest. 
Be  sure  to  finish  before  the  20th  of  August. 

Watch  your  oats,  as  you  have  done  your  English 
harvest;  cut  them  when  the  straw  is  partially  green, 
and  as  soon  as  the  oat  has  formed  into  a  consistence. 
The  grain  will  be  better,  the  straw  more  valuable  for 
feeding,  and  a  handsome  saving  in  thd  shelling  ;  but 
when  you  house  them,  use  a  little  more  caution  than 
with  your  grain,  in  ventilating  your  mov/s  ;  the  oats  will 
pack  closer,  and  be  in  more  danger  of  healing,  than 
your  grain. 


THE  farmer's  manual.  .   87 

!l^our  haying  being  closed  ;  your  oat  harvest  secur 
ed  ;  your  cross-ploughing  finished  ;  your  early  plant- 
ed potatoes  will  now  claim  your  attention.  Your  white, 
and  yellow  potatoes,  are  first  ripe  ;  take  them  before 
the  vine  is  entirely  dead,  and  haul  them  out  of  the 
hills  with  a  three-tined  hook-fork  :  in  this  state,  they 
\yill  generally  adhere  to  the  vines,  and  by  one  stroke 
of  the  fork,  the  hill  will  be  nearly  cleared;  but  if  you 
suffer  your  potatoes  to  stand  until  your  vines  are  dead, 
the  coats  of  the  yellow,  and  white  potatoes,  will  soon 
begin  to  rust  and  grow  defective  ;  they  will  also  sever 
from  the  vines,  and  the  expense  of  digging  with  the 
hoe,  nearly,  or  quite  doubled.  To  save  expense  and 
l3bour,  is  ready  monej,  in  all  business  ;  but  in  farming, 
it  is  ready  money  with  interest,  because  it  saves  time, 
which  is  more  valuable  to  the  farmer,  who  is  engaged 
about  his  farm,  than  money.  I  can  say  from  my  own 
knowledge,  that  one  man,  with  such  a  fork  as  above, 
can  throw  out  of  the  hill,  after  two  hoeings,  and  when 
the  vines  are  partly  green,  more  than  100  bushels  of 
potatoes  in  a  day  ;  but  how  many  the  same  man  could 
dig  with  the  hoe  in  the  same  time,  I  have  no  knowledge. 

Your  potatoes  should  be  gathered,  and  housed,  as 
soon  as  dry,  to  preserve  them  from  injury,  from  cat- 
tle, and  the  weather.  Your  early  potatoes  generally 
command  a  good  market,  anjd  a  fair  price  ;  but  one  of 
your  best  markets  is  your  hog-stye.  The  value  of 
this  root,  when  boiled  and  mixed  with  bran,  corn,  or 
oat-meal,  and  given  to  hogs  to  bi  ing  them  forward  to 
fatten,  may  be  fairly  estimated  at  2s.  or  S^^the  bushel. 

Gather  your  potatoe-vines,  coarse  hay  and  stout 
stubble,  and  fill  your  hog-pens.  Cart  in  turf  and 
other  rich  earths,  and  cover  the  vegetables  in  your 
hog-pens  5  tho  e|;recit  heat  diid  warm  r'^inc  in  AnQ.r\/^j^y 
will  bring  your  manure  forward  fast.  Spare  neither 
time  nor  expense  ;  it  will  prove  a  rich  mine. 

Flax  and  Hemp. 

Your  flax  next  claims  your  attention  ;  this,  if  you  de- 
sign it  for  the  nicest  domestic  manufacture,  you  wil! 


B8  THE  farmer's  manual. 

pull  when  the  blossoms  begin  to  turn  and  fall  ofl*,  al 
ter  the  Irish  method,  and  rot  it  in  the  water  after  the  man- 
ner prescribed  for  rotting  hemp  ;  {see  hemp  process.)  If 
you  let  it  stand  for  seed,  observe  when  the  stalk  begins 
to  turn,  and  the  under  leaves  fall  off,  then  pull  your  flax, 
and  in  both  methods  bind  up  as  you  pull,  in  small  bun- 
dles, and  set  up  your  bundles  in  small  bunches,  to 
dry  ;  or  spread  it  upon  the  ground  for  several  days,  if 
the  weather  is  good,  and  then  bind,  and  stack  against 
the  rains,  in  long  stacks,  with  the  buts,  or  roots  out, 
and  cover  your  stacks  carefully  with  loose  flax,  that 
will  shed  oflT  the  rains,  or  your  flax  will  be  injured  : 
the  better  way  is  to  house  your  flax  as  soon 
as  dried,  as  carefully  as  you  have  done  your  har- 
vest. You  may  rot  it  in  the  water,  or  dew  rot  it, 
by  spreading  it  upon  your  grass  grounds,  in  Sep- 
tember, after  the  seed  is  carefully  beat  off  by  the 
flail,  in  the  usual  way  of  threshing,  or  beat  oflf  by 
hand,  by  whipping  each  sheaf  across  a  barrel,  or 
some  other  permanent  body,  such  as  a  flax,  or  hemp 
brake,  &:c.  The  seed  when  cleaned  is  valuable, 
either  for  the  home,  or  foreign  market,  and  commands 
a  fair  price  and  good  pay.  No  time  can  be  fixed  for 
rotting  your  flax,  either  in  the  water,  or  on  the  grass, 
both  depend  upon  the  warmth  of  the  weather,  and  the 
latter  upon  the  moisture  of  the  season"^.  The  success 
of  your  crop  depends  very  much  upon  a  suitable  rot ; 
to  obtain  this,  you  must  frequently  dry  a  handful,  and 
try  it  in  your  brake,  and  when  the  rot  is  perfect,  lose 
no  time  in  turning  again  your  flax  to  dry  and  take  up  ; 
and  when  dried,  lose  no  time  in  housing  it ;  the  least 
delay  may  expose  it  to  a  rain  at  this  season  of  the 
year ;  this,  if  the  weather  is  warm,  or  if  cold  and  long, 
tvm-ttijxrrc-,  if-crcrt  T^in  your  crop  ;  the  same  is  equally 
true  with  your  hemp. 

Next   to   your   flax,  your   hemp   claims   your  at- 
tention ;     this    requires     a    process     somewhat    dif- 


*  When  you  rot  flax  in  the  water,  a  pond  or  pit  answers  best ;  th 
coufined  water  renders  the  flax  soft,  but  will  not  answer  for  hemp 


THfi  FARMER^S  MANUAL.  89 

ferent.  When  you  observe  the  under  leaves  upon 
your  male  hemp  begin  to  turn  yellow,  and  fali^ 
off,  after  the  period  of  blossoming  is  over,  divide  oft* 
your  hemp  field  into  rows,  4,  5,  or  6  feet  wide,  by 
pulling  up  the  hemp  clean  in  alleys  of  2  feet  wide,  in 
the  irftermediate  spaces  ;  bind  up  the  hemp  as  you  pull, 
and  carry  it  out,  and  set  it  up  to  dry,  10,  15,  or  20 
bundles  in  each  bunch,  and  house  it  as  soon  as  it  will 
answer  without  heating.  You  may  then  go  on  to  pull 
out  the  male  hemp  from  the  female,  (which  bears  the 
seed,)  by  passing  in  the  alleys,  and  reaching  into  the 
rows,  and  pulling  up  each  male  stalk  separately  ; 
bind,  and  carry  out,  and  stack  as  before,  until  you 
have  separated  the  male  from  the  female  hemp  ;  house 
when  dry  as  before.  After  10  or  15  days,  when  the 
burs  in  your  seed-hemp  begin  to  open,  and  the  black 
seeds  appear,  lose  no  time  in  pulling,  binding  and 
stacking  your  hemp,  as  before ;  the  hemp-birds  will 
become  numerous  and  busy  in  quest  of  seed :  your 
hemp  will  shell,  and  your  loss  will  be  great.  In  bind- 
ing your  hemp,  select  two  spires  of  the  shortest  of  the 
best  coated  hemp  for  bands ;  for  if  you  use  the  short 
undergrowth,  which  has  but  a  thin  coat,  your  bands 
will  fail  you  in  rotting,  and  your  hemp  will  suffer  waste 
by  becoming  loose,  besides  the  difficulty,  trouble  and 
expense  of  bindiri*g  over  again  your  bundles  when 
wet  and  heavy.  When  you  are  ready  to  put  your 
hemp  into  water,  say  about  the  first  of  October, 
(which  should  always  be  in  some  river,  or  brook, 
where  the  water  changes  often,  and  not  in  a  pond,  or 
any  stagnant  water ;  this  will  become  foul  and  putrid, 
and  the  stench  so  great,  that  few  persons  can  be  found 
to  draw  your  hemp,)  you  may  thresh  off  the  seed  with 
a  flail,  as  in  flax,  or  hold  a  bundle  with  one  hand 
across  a  flax  or  hemp  brake,  and  whip  out  the  seed 
with  a  hand-staff,  upon  a  tight  floor :  the  seed  is  va- 
luable for  the  same  purposes  as  your  flax-seed,  either 
for  the  home  consumption,  or  a  foreign  market.  Tlic 
rotting  of  your  hemp  is  also  critical,  like  your  flax^- 

8* 


90  THE    FARMER'S    MAIVUAtc 

and  must  be  watched  and  tried,  when  dried,  in  the 
same  manner.  If  you  draw  your  hemp  from  the  wa- 
ter in  October^  or  even  in  November,  and  the  weather 
proves  warm,  it  will  over-rot  before  it  can  dry  in  the 
bundle  ;  you  must  spread  and  dry  it  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  house  it  for  the  winter;  but  if  the  weather 
should  be  cold,  you  may  set  up  your  hemp  across 
your  fences ;  and  if  it  gets  dry  before  the  frosts  of 
winter  set  in,  house  it  as  before,  if  not,  and  your  bun- 
dles become  frozen,  you  may  let  them  stand  over  the 
winter,  and  house  and  dress  in  March,  or  dress  from 
the  field  as  they  stand.  The  difference  between  the 
dressing  of  your  hemp  and  flax,  is  this  ;  your  hemp- 
brake  must  be  about  twice  the  size  of  your  flax- 
brake,  in  all  its  proportions,  for  the  first  braking; 
and  then  if  it  is  run  through  a  flax-brake  for  a  second 
braking,  it  will  greatly  expedite  the  swingling. 
Your  swingling-knife  must  be  about  half  the  length  of 
the  flax-knife  ;  the  swingling-board  about  4  or  5  feet 
high.  The  shives  must  be  separated  from  the  hemp, 
by  stroking  gently  with  your  knife,  instead  of  whip- 
ping with  a  full  stroke,  as  in  flax,  and  by  gently  shak- 
ing the  hemp,  between  the  strokes,  and  all  without 
the  hatchel,  as  in  flax.  There  is  a  great  slight  in 
dressing  hemp;  an  expert  hand  will  swingle  clean 
about  100  lbs.  per  day.  When  your  hemp  is  dress- 
ed, it  must  be  bound  up  in  bunches  of  20  or  30  lbs. 
each,  and  then  it   is  ready  for  market. 

Hemp  is  a  great  exhauster  of  soil ;  requires  the  strong- 
est lands,  and  richest  manures,  in  great  quantity;  re- 
quires also,  much  labour,- and  is  of  course  an  unprofita- 
ble crop  in  our  country.  In  time  of  war,  it  has  proved 
profitable,  and  may  become  so  again;  of  course,  its 
mode  of  culture  should  be  correctly  understood.  Your 
hemp,  as  well  as  flax  grounds,  should  be  turned  up 
into  ridges  in  autumn;  the  ridges  should  be  levelled 
with  the  plough  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  frost  will 
admit;  your  ground  then  dressed  with  10,  15,  or  20 
!oads  of  your  best  manures,  well  spread  and  covered 


THE    farmer's    manual.  ^1 

with  the  plough,  your  furrows  smoothed  gently  with  the 
harrow,  and  your  seed,  say  from  2  to  3  bushels  to  the 
acre,  sown  early  in  May,  and  covered  lightly  with  the 
harrow.  If  you  sow  on  the  furrows  and  cover  deep 
with  the  harrow,  or  sow  on  a  stift'soil,  your  hemp  will 
pull  very  hard. 

Paring  and  Burjimg, 

This  mode  of  culture  in  England,  appears  to  stand 
high  in  the  estimation  of  Sir  John  Sinclair,  and  all  the 
best  English  writers  ;  and  w^here  labour  is  cheap,  as  in 
Ei^gland,  it  doubtless,  in  many  instances,  will  answer 
well ;  but  the  true  result  of  this  mode  of  tillage  ap- 
pears to  arise  from  the  fertilizing  powers  of  the  ashes 
derived  from  the  sward,  when  pared  and  burnt^.  So 
far  as  this  goes  to  show  the  value  of  ashes  sown  upon 
land  to  increase  the  value  of  tillage,  leads  me  to  in- 
quire, whether  the  sward,  when  turned  in  to  rot,  un- 
der the  furrows,  together  with  one  half  of  the  expense 
of  paring  and  burning,  when  laid  out  in  wood-ashes, 
and  sown  upon  the  tops  of  the  furrows,  would  not,  in 
this  country,  answer  a  much  better  purpose  for  the 
succeeding  crops,  and  give  a  more  permanent  and 
lasting  value  to  the  land  for  an  after  tillage  ?  If  any 
one  can  be  at  a  loss  for  an  answer,  let  him  try  and 
see. 

Summer  Fallowing. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  good 
farming,  and  upon  w^hich  has  arisen  a  great  variety 
of  opinion  and  practice.  Some  farmers  are  of  opin- 
ion that  the  ploughings  for  a  suE^mer  fallow,  cannot 
be  too  frequent,  and  ihdit  aW  fallow  crops  are  injurious 
to  the  land,  and  particularly  to  the  succeeding  crops. 

*  Quere.  Whether  lime  sowu  upon  the  sward  before  ploughingfj 
and  the  crop  the*!  dressed  with  ashes,  would  not  be  more  valuable 
than  paring  and  burniog-, 


92  THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL, 

Others  consider  all  naked  fallows  as  a  waste  of  ex- 
pense without  any  adequate  benefit,  and  insist  up9n 
some  fallow  crops  either  of  turnips,  to  be  fed  oft*  by 
sheep,  or  of  potatoes,  to  bedug  for  stock,  or  of  buck- 
wheat, or  clover,  to  be  ploughed  in  as  a  fertilizing 
crop.  Both  probably  are  in  an  error,  -and  run  into 
the  opposite  extremes.  A  strong  stiff  clay,  or  a  hard 
gravelly  soil,  cannot  be  ploughed  too  often  for  a  fal- 
low ;  but  a  loose  sandy  soil  may  be  greatly  jnjur.ed 
by  too  frequent  ploughings.  The  latter  may  be  till- 
ed to  advantage,  with  ^a  potatoe  fallow  ;  and  the  for- 
mer by  a  turnip  fallow,  to  be  fed  off  by  sheep  ;  or  after 
several  ploughings,  with  the  fertilizing  fallows  of  buck- 
wheat, ploughed  in  :  but  a  rough  stony  soil  cannot  be 
tilled  with  a  fallow  crop  to  advantage  ;  this  land,  and 
perhaps  this  only,  requires  a  naked  summer  fallow. 
The  great  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a  summer 
fallow  are  these  : 

1.  Frequent  ploughings  destroy  the  herbage  upon 
the  fallows,  and  the  roots  and  seeds  of  herbage,  and 
thus  render  the  grounds  clean  for  the  following  crops. 

2.  This  is  'greatly  promoted  by  a  potatoe  fallow, 
both  in  jioeing  and  digging. 

3.  The  plough  renders  the  earth  light  and  mellow,  to 
receive  the  seed  when  sown,  and  to  admit  the  ex- 
tension of  the  roots  of  the  grain,  when  it   vegetates. 

4.  At  each  ploughing  it  changes  the  soil,  and  ex- 
poses a  new  surface  to  receive  the  benefits  of  the  sun, 
air,  rains  and  dews,  with  their  fertilizing  powers. 

5.  It  renders  the  earth  light  and  pervious,  for  the 
admission  of  the  sun,  air,  rains  and  dews,  and  opens 
a  free  circulation  for  them  to  the  roots  of  the  grain, 
(or  plants,  whatever,)  and  thus  they  impart  their  fer- 
tilizing properties  to  the  vital  princi})les  of  the  crop 
you  cultivate. 

6.  The  green  fallow,  when  ploughed  in,  as  well  as 
the  potatoe  fallow,  greatly  promote  this  benefit,  by 
meliorating  the  soil.  Upon  this  principle,  the 
plough,  with  the  fertilizing  crops,  upon  a  summer  fa!- 


THE  farmer's  manual.  93 

low,  arc  the  only  substitute  for  manure,  under  til- 
lage ;  because  the  effects  are  the  same,  with  this  ex- 
jpeptiou,  that  the  meliorating  effects  arising  from  the 
fermentation  of  strong  manures,  are  both  greatfT  for 
the  time,  and  more  permanent  and  lasting.  The  ma- 
nure, also,  will  continue  to  assist  the  plough,  in  me- 
liorating the  soil  for  after  crops,  by  causing  a  new 
fermentation  upon  every  new  exposure  of  surface  to 
the  air,  until  the  strength  of  the  manure  is  wholly  ex- 
hausted. Hence  again,  the  value  of  your  poiatoe  fal- 
low, to  increase  your  number  of  stock,  and  quantity 
of  manure. 


SEPTEMBER. 

Begin  the  second  cutting  upon  your  English  mow- 
ing grounds  ;  but  let  your  timothy  stand  for  feed ; 
remember  that  rowen  requires  double  the  drying  of 
the  first  crop,  or  the  hay  will  be  bad,  and  give  your 
horses  a  cough,  and  the  heaves.  ^ 

Top  the  stalks  upon  your  Indian-corn  close  to  the 
ears,  as  soon  as  the  ear  becomes  too  hard  to  boil ; 
when  the  weather  is  fine,  bind  in  small  bundles  and 
stack  in  small  stacks,  the  same  day,  to  secure  against 
rains ;  your  corn  will  ripen  the  faster  and  receive  no 
injury,  and  your  stalks  will  be  more  valuable.  If 
your  hay  is  short,  or  you  wish  to  sow  winter  grain 
after  your  Indian-corn,  or  secure  your  corn  against 
the  effects  of  early  frosts,  you  may  cut  up  your  corn- 
hills  close  to  the  groi»nd,  ii!  fair  weather,  with  a  sharp 
knife  or  sickh  ,  and  lay  two  rows  into  one,  in  small 
bundles,  as  when  )ou  top  and  secure  your  stalks; 
bind  your  buiidlos  above  the  ears,  and  stack  the  same 
day  in  small  stacks,  either  upon  the  borders  of  your 
field,  or  upon  an  adjoining  field;  you  may  then 
pl.Mjgh  anJ  sow  as  upon  fallow  grounds  ;  secure  your 
stacks  by  doubling  down  the  tops,  and  binding  th- 


04  THE  farmer's  manual. 

heads  with  a  pliable  stalk ;  this  will  exclude  the  rainSj 
which  otherwise  would  damage  your  corn.  This 
corn  will  be  ripe  at  the  u.^al  time,  without  the  least 
diminution  in  its  colour,  weight,  or  value :  but  in  the 
opinion  of  some  of  the  best  farmers,  (who  are  in  the 
steady  practice  of  this  mode  from  choice,)  with  an 
increased  value  to  the  grain.  The  increased  quan- 
tity and  value  of  your  stalks,  will  richly  pay  the  ex- 
pense ;  you  may  in  this  way,  bring  forward  the  sow- 
ing of  your  winter  grain,  2,  3,  or  4  weeks,  which  will 
again  at  harvest  repay  the  expense  of  clearing  your 
corn-fields.  If  you  house  your  corn-stacks  before 
you  husk  your  corn,  the  pitching  will  be  heavy,  and 
your  bundles  often  break,  and  your  places  for  hous- 
ing, be  difficult'and  inconvenient,  and  often  exposed 
to  your  cattle  ;  therefore,  husk  your  corn  on  the  field, 
and  empty  your  baskets  into  your  cart  as  you  husk, 
always  remembering  to  leave  the  husk  upon  the 
stalk,  by  breaking  off  the  cob;  these  will  again  repay 
your  expense  in  feeding.  The  difference  in  the 
mode  of  husking,  will  at  first  be  considerable  ;  but 
a  little  practice  will  soon  remove  this,  and  render 
them  equal.  It  is  of  high  importance  for  every 
farmer  to  know  every  mode  of  culture,  that  will  af- 
ford him  successful  advantage  in  managing  his  farm, 
and  in  this  point  of  view,  this  does  not  rank  as  one 
of  the  least.  If  you  plant  the  Canada  corn,  (so  call- 
ed,) it  will,  by  early  ripening,  bring  forward  your  sow- 
ing 10  or  15  days  earlier  than  the  great  tucket,  or 
common  corn,  with  crops  of  equal,  if  not  of  superior, 
value,  which  is  also  of  some  importance. 

Enter  with  spirit  upo/i  your  potatoe  fallows ;  dig, 
house,  or  market,  with  all  the  help  you  can  muster. 
One  man  can  throw  out  of  the  hill,  with  a  hook-fork, 
as  mtniy  as  5  or  G  hajids  can  pick  up  and  cart ;  chil- 
dren can  be  of  great  use  in  gathering  your  potatoes. 

Clear  your  poorestMands  first,  nnd  sow  your  rye 
upon  them  in  the  first  week  of  September,  if  possi- 
ble ;  say  one  bushel  to  the  acre :  your  rich  grounds 


THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL.  Vo 

will  bear  to  sow  as  Ihte  as  the  last  week  in  Septem- 
ber, and  be  as  forward  when  the  frosts  of  winter  set 
in,  as  your  poorest  lands,  sown  in  the  first  week.  If 
the  weather  is  fair,  and  your  grounds  dry,  at  seed- 
time, you  may  cover  with  the  harrow,  unless  upon  a 
clay,  or  stift'soil,  which  is  apt  to  bake,  your  crop  will 
then  be  best  when  covered  with  the  plough,  upon 
narrow  lands,  with  deep  furrows ;  also,  when  the  wea- 
ther is  moist,  and  your  lands  wet  and  heavy,  cover 
with  the  plough :  in  both  cases,  the  harrow,  after  co- 
vering, leaves  "the  land  close  and  dead,  and  your 
grain  will  lack  roots  sufficient  to  insure  you  a  good 
crop.  I  have  said,  say  one  bushel  of  rye  to  the  acre, 
because  this  is  the  common  practice,  and  it  does 
well;  but  some  farmers  sow  only  half  a  bushel  to  the 
acre,  others  again  only  one  peck  to  the  acre,  where 
the  soil  is  light,  and  not  exposed  to  be  killed  by  the 
winter.  I  can  say  from  experience,  that  I  have  sown 
1,  2,  3  and  4  pecks  to  the  acre,  upon  a  light  soil, 
and  upon  the  same  field,  and  could  not  discriminate 
correctly  the  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
grain  at  harvest ;  yet  T  practice  the  common  mode  of 
one  bushel  to  the  acre.  Let  experience  be  the  only 
guide  to  your  practice. 

This  is  the  time  to  ensure  your  crop  ;  let  your  lands 
be  well  prepared,  and  rendered  as  mellow  as  possi- 
ble, by  deep  ploughing ;  let  your  seed  be  steeped  for 
24  hours,  before  you  sow  it,  in  a  strong  pickle  of  sea- 
salt,  with  saltpetre,  or  in  any  rich  liquid  manure  ; 
then  rolled  in  plaster,  and  sown  immediately  ;  then 
dressed  with  one  bushel  of  plaster  to  the-  acre,  sown 
on  the  furrows,  if  your  seed  is  covered  with  the 
plough,  or  it  may  be  sowm  and  brushed  in  lightly  with 
the  harrow.  With  this  practice,  and  the  blessing  of 
God,  you  ma^  expect  a  good  crop,  if  your  fences  arc 
good  ;  but  if  they  are  bad,  you  have  no  right  to  ex- 
pect a  blessing;  this  is  your  own  wilful  neglect. 

Your  orchards,  at  tiie  same  time,  claim  your  atten- 
lion  ;  your  early  apples,  which  fall,  will  soon  ro^ 


96  THE  farmer's  manual. 

and  waste,  if  not  gathered  and  made  into  cider., 
Children  can  do  the  business  of  gathering  apples ; 
they  are  the  farmers  richest  blessing,  and  When  train- 
ed to  habits  of  industry,  become  the  best  members 
of  society,  when  they  grow  into  life.  Let  your  chil- 
dren pick  up  your  potatoes,  when  dug,  and  pick  up 
and  house  your  apples,  it  will  be  doubly  profitable; 
first  to  you,  and  next  to  themselves.  If  your  fruit  is 
made  up  when  ripe  and  sound,  you  may  generally 
have  good  cider,  in  the  common  practice;  but  if  your 
fruit  is  either  rotten,  or  hard  and  unripe,  like  the 
gleanings  of  your  winter  apples,  no  possible  process 
can  ensure  you  good  cider.  I  will  wave  all  the  va- 
rious modes  practised  and  recommended  by  the  nice 
and  curious,  and  conclude  my  remarks  upon  the  or- 
chard, by  the  following  extract  from  Thompson's 
Notes  on  farming. 

"  The  care  of  orchards,  and  the  making  good  ci- 
der, are  so  very  profitable,  that  it  will  necessarily 
draw  the  attention  of  every  good  fanner.  Mr.  An- 
derson, a  gentleman  in  England,  famed  for  good  ci- 
der, gives  fhe  following  account  of  his  approved  me- 
thod of  making  it. 

'  I  should  first  tell  you  that  my  orchards  are  upon 
a  clay  soil,  which  I  think  conduces  much  to  the  good- 
ness of  my  cider.  1  will  be  short  in  my  practical 
account,  making  but  few  observations,  and  leave  the 
curious  to  draw  speculative  reflections  from  it.  I 
permit  my  fruit  to  remain  on  the  trees,  until  a  great 
part  falls  by  ripeness  ;  then  gently  shaking  the  trees, 
take  in  the  apples  in  dry  weather,  laying  them  in 
heaps  of  equal  ripeness  in  a  loft  over  my  press. 
There  they  remain  until  they  have  perspired,  and  that 
perspiration  ceases.  As  soon  as  convenient  after- 
wards, I  grind  my  apples,  and  press  out  the  jnice ;  if 
it  casts  a  pale  colour,  I  suffer  the  pulp  to  stand  12 
or  24  hours,  which  will  heighten  the  colour  of  the 
juice.  As  soon  as  it  is  expressed,  I  pour  it  into  vats, 
through  a  sieve,  (some  filtrate  through  a  hogshead  of 


THE    farmer's    manual.  97 

clean  sand,  aft^r  the  manner  of  a  leach,  and  place  a 
large  strainer,  or  sheet,  or  table-cloth  over  the  hogs- 
head, to  strain  out  the  pumice,)  where  it  remains 
about  two  days,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather, 
and  the  nature  of  the  apple,  (the  longest  when  frosty, 
or  cool  weather,)  till  a  thick  head,  or  scum,  rises  upon 
it.  Then  I  draw  off  a  little  into  a  glass  to  see  if  it 
is  fine,  and  as  soon  as  I  catch  it  so,  I  rack  it  off  with- 
out delay  into  open  vats,  or  into  hogsheads.  If  the 
juice  is  racked  into  vessels  larger  at  top,  than  the  bot- 
tom, and  I  rack  it  off  as  soon  as  fine,  1  need  not  take 
off  the  head,  or  scum,  it  will  not  mix  with  the  cider ; 
but  if-the  cask  is  straight,  or  I  have  neglected  to  draw 
off  until  the  cider  begins  to  become  foul  again,  I  find 
1  do  best  to  take  off  the  head  with  a  wooden  skim- 
mer, and  then  draw  off  as  soon  as  possible.  When- 
ever the  brown  head  begins  to  open  in  the  middle,  or 
elsewhere,  and  a  whiteness  appears  at  the  openings, 
I  am  certain  it  is  time  to  begin  to  draw  off;  but  I 
find  from  experience,  that  the-  surest  token  is  to  ob- 
serve its  state  by  what  is  drawn  off  in  a  glass,  and 
this  method  should  be  closely  attended  to.  I  have 
drawn  a  glass  of  cider  out  of  a  vat  at  8  oVJock,  foul ; 
another  at  10,  fine,  almost  candle  bright,  without  any 
appearance  of  the  heads  opening,  as  above  observ- 
ed: at  11,  it  was  growing  foul  f^st,  without  high 
winds,  or  any  extraordinary  event  that  [  could  per- 
ceive, to  occasion  it.  If  then  drawn  off  into  open 
vessels,  a  fresh  head  may  arise  in  24  hours,  then  it 
may  be  racked  into  a  close  hogshead,  or  other  receiv- 
er, where  it  will  begin  to  ferment  after  a  day  or  two, 
according  to  circumstances  ;  I  then  permit  it  to  fer- 
ment 3  or  4  days,  (never  exceeding  a  week,  for  the 
hardest  fruit,)  then  I  fumigate  a  clean  sweet  hogs- 
head, with  matches  of  coarse  cloth,  dipped  in  melfed 
brimstone,  and  rack  off  my  cider  into  the  cask  as 
quick  as  possible.  If  the  fermentation  still  goes  on, 
I  give  it  one  more  racking  in  this  way,  and  cover  the 
bung  with  a  tile,  until  I  am  sure  tlie  fermentation  has 


-^8  THE    farmer's     MANWAL. 

ceased  ;  I  then  bung  close  loi-  th^  winter.  Some- 
times f  have  had  the  fermentation.^  continue,  and' 
force  me  to  5,  6,  8,  10,  or  a  dozen  successive  rack- 
ings,  after  1  begin  to  fumigate,  and  yet  the  cider  has 
proved  good.  Many  other  modes  are  practised  with 
good  success  ;  but  wherever  this  method  is  attended 
to,  I  will  answer  for  its  doiag  well.'  *' 

Remarks. 

The  most  important  parts  of  this  method  of  mak 
ing  good  cider,  are, 

1.  The  time  and  manner  of  gathering  the  fruit. 

2.  The  care  and  attention  in  assorting  it,  by  sepa- 
rating the  hard  from  the  mellow. 

3.  The  rackings  which  separate  the  liquor  from 
the  lees,  or  fine  pumice,  which  causes  the  fermenta- 
tion. 


OCTOBER. 

You  have  now  dug  and  housed  your  early  fallow  po- 
tatoes,  and  finished  sowing  your  rye;  enter  with  the 
same  spirit  upon  your  late  planted  fallow  crops,  (such 
as  were  planted  upon  your  clover,  or  English  swards,) 
and  proceed  in  gathering  your  potatoes  and  preparing 
your  wheat  lands  as  you  have  done  your  rye ;  plough 
deep,  with  small  furrows.  Steep  your  wheat  as  you 
have  done  your  rye,  and  roll  it  in  plaster,  and  sow  plas- 
ter with  your  wheat,  plough  in,  or  cover  with  tlie  har- 
row, as  with  your  rye.  Sow  your  wheat  broad-cast, 
one  and  a  half  bushel  to  the  acre  ;  this  seeding  is  most 
generally  approved.  If  your  wheat  appears  to  be 
smutty,  wash  it  clean  in  some  open  vessel,  where  you 
can  rinse  it  by  stirring  ;  skim  off  the  smutty,  and  light 
wheat'^and  then  go  on  to  steep  as  before  directed  ;  thir 
will  guard  against  a  future  smut  upon  yourcrop* 


THE    farmer's    manual.  5' 

Look  to  your  field  beans ;  pull  such  as  you  design  to 
follow  with  wheat  or  rye,  and  remove  them  to  the  bor- 
ders of  your  field,  or  on  to  the  field  adjoining,  in  small 
heaps,  to  cure  ;  or  ycKir  sowing  may  be  unnecessarily 
delayed,  to  the  damage  of  your  crops.  Beans  are  a 
rich,  healthy  food  for  the  table,  occasionally  in  winter, 
are  valuable  feed  for  your  hogs  and  sheep,  are  easily 
raised,  and  do  not  exhaust  your  lands.  Even  the 
poorest  light  lands,  or  the  stiffest  clay,  with  a  little 
plaster,  either  in,  or  upon  your  bean-hills,  will  give 
you  a  profitable  crop,  which,  if  pulled,  and  cured  as 
above,  may  serve  as  one  of  your  fallow  crops,  if  you 
use  plaster  at  sowing  as  before  directed.  One  of  the 
great  mysteries  of  farming  is  to  suffer  nothing  to  re- 
main idle,  but  to  make  every  article  of  your  farm,  both 
animate,  and  inanimate,  produce  some  steady,  and 
substantial  profit :  this  a  careful  farmer  may  always  do. 
Your  orchards  claim  your  steady  attention  through 
this  month.  Gather  your  winter  apples  by  hand,  from 
your  trees,  and  put  them  into  your  spare  flour-barrels, 
or  any  dry  barrels,  directly  from  the  trees ;  head 
them  up,  and  let  them  remain  in  the  open  air,  either 
upon  the  field,  or  in  some  other  safe  place,  until  the 
weather  becomes  so  severe  as  to  endanger  their 
freezing;  then  house  in  your  cellar,  such  as  have 
not  been  marketted  ;  the  saving  in  this  way  will 
doubly  repay  the  extra  expense  of  picking  by  hand, 
and  the  cost  of  the  barrel.  Children  can  do  the 
business  of  picking,  with  small  baskets,  or  with  bags 
slung  over  the  shoulders,  (as  the  seeds-man  slings 
his  bag  at  sowing,)  with  the' assistance  of  a  careful 
hand  to  move  their  ladders,  and  fill  and  head  up  the 
barrels.  I  have,  in  some  seasons,  gathered  3  or  400 
bushels  upon  my  farm,  in  this  way,  in  a  few  days,  and 
always  with  good  success.  If  you  design  your  apples 
for  the  Southern  or  West-India  market,  you  may  pack 
them  in  your  barrels  with  clean  dry  sand,  at  little  ex- 
pense, and  always  with  good  advantage.  I  have  of- 
^  a  done  this  with  my  winter's  store,  and  with  a  savins: 


^Q(^  ^        THE    farmer's    manual. 

Some  persons  construct  shelves  in  a  cellar  secure 
against  frost,  and  place  their  apples  separately  upon 
the  shelves,  and  find  an  advantage  in  saving  their  fruit 
over  to  the  spring,  which  fully  repays  the  expense. 
This  does  well,  and  may  be  considered  in  the  end 
cheaper  than  barrels,  as  the  shelves  (if  properly  con- 
structed) will  last  many  years  ;  but  the  barrels,  by 
neglect,  are  soon  gone.     Try  both. 

I  need  not  say  that  great  care  should  be  taken  with 
your  orchards  to  cultivate  the  best  fruit ;  this  every 
farmer  knows,  who  deserves  the  name  of  farmer,  and 
the  manner  of  effecting  this  by  grafting  has  become 
common  to  our  country.  I  shall  treat  upon  this  sub- 
ject more  particularly  in  my  remarks  upon  gardening, 
article  fruit.  Finish  gathering  your  late  fruit  for 
cider,  make  it  up  as  fast  as  possible ;  make  some  trial 
of  Mr.  Anderson's  plan,  or  method,  to  begin  with  ;  if  it 
pays  the  expense  this  year,  you  may  reap  advantage 
from  it  the  next,  besides  the  enjoyment  of  drinking 
good  cider.  In  Newark,  in  New-Jersey,  they  have  be- 
come famous  for  good  cider,  by  such  kinds  of  ma- 
nagement, and  their  cider  always  commands  the  first 
sales,  the  highest  price,  and  best  pay,  in  market; 
often  a  double  price,  when  scarce  in  market.  This 
is  a  consideration  which  no  careful  farmer  will  neg- 
lect. 

Look  to  your  flax,  and  turn  it  when  necessary,  as 
the  upper  surface  will  rot  faster  than  the  under  side. 
Look  to  your  hemp,  or  flax,  in  the  water,  and  see  that 
it  is  well  covered  with  the  water,  and  that  it  lies  safe, 
(not  being  washed  away  with  the  great  rains.) 

Dig  and  house  your  carrots  and  other  roots,  you 
design  for  feeding ;  excepting  your  turnips  and  cab- 
bages, these  may  stand  to  close  your  field  crops. 

Draw  your  flax  from  the  water  as  soon  as  it  will 
answer,  (upon  trial  as  above,)  spread  it  to  dry ;  and 
bind  and  house  it  the  first  moment  it  will  answer 
one  extra  rain  may  ruin  your  crop,  or  destroy  yoi 
profits.     Observe  the  same  with  your  hemp 


THE  FARMER'S  MANUAL.  101 

Watch  your  corn  in  your  corn-!ofts,  turn  it  often, 
that  it  may  dry  even,  and  not  mould,  especially  if  the 
weather  is  warm  and  rainy  ;  bin  up  your  first  corn  in 
narrow  bins,  as  fast  as  it  w^ill  answer  with  safety,  to 
give  room  for  your  late  husking ;  this  valuable  crop 
requires  nice  attention ;  select  the  fairest  and,  ripest 
ears,  as  you  are  husking,  for  year  seed-cafo,  particu- 
larly those  with  the  smallest  coh  .ami  best  filled  out 
at  the  ends.  Now  is  thelirrje  to;impi\oveyoi!r  ftext 
crop.  By  pure  seed,  and  by  selecting  the  earliest,  or 
the  r4pe&t,  you  may  bring  forward  your  after  crops 
10,  15,  or  20  days;  this  will  secure  your  Indian-corn 
against  early  frosts,  and  ought  not  to  be  neglected; 
or  will  enable  you  to  cut  up  by  the  bottoms  as  before 
observed,  10,  15,  or  20  days  earlier,  and  thus  im- 
prove your  late  sowing^*. 

It  is  of  the  highest  advantage  to  the  farmer,  not 
only  to  know  how  to  cultivate  in  the  best  manner, 
each  particular  crop  separately,  but  how  to  combine 
this  cultivation  with  the  improvement  of  other  crops, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  make  the  greatest  advantage  from 
the  seasons  of  seed-time  and  harvest. 

The  same  is  as  true  with  the  seed  of  your  potatoes^ 
and  all  other  crops,  as  of  your  Indian-corn,  and  maj' 
as  easily  be  attended  to,  and  improved,  and  to  as 
good  advantage.  ^ 

Get  your  flax  all  in  from  rotting,  in  the  course  of 
this  month,  if  possible,  and  house  it  snug  and  dry; 
secure  your  hemp  as  fast  as  it  will  answer,  before 
November;  the  season  becomes  critical  for  such 
cropso  Finish  makingand  marketing  your  cider,  and 
place  such  casks  as  you  may  resei've  for  domestic 

*  This  improvement  may  be  extended  stiU  further;  you  may  se- 
lect your  seed-corn  fr<?m  your  field,  taking  the  ripest  ears,  at  differ- 
ent stag;es  of  your  corn,  (beginning  early  in  September,)  and  from 
the  most  thrifty  stalks ;  this  will  bring  forward  your  next  crop  ;  but 
if  you  select  your  seed  from  such  stalks  as  produce  two  or  more  ear?, 
7/ou  may^  by  pursuing  this  pi-actice,  double,  or  treble  your  quantity 
of  corn  upon'the  same  grounds,  with  the  same  liliai>-c,  * 

9* 


i02  THE  FARMER^S  MANUAL^ 

consumption,  at  the  north  side  of  your  buildings 
where  it  may  be  kept  cool  until  the  frosts  of  winter 
set  in,  then  stow  it  away  in  your  cellar. 

Plough  into  one  bout  ridges  (with  deep  ploughing) 
such  grounds  as  you  design  the  next  season,  for  hemp 
an^fl^x;  the  extra  .benefit  you  will'  derive  from  the 
frosts  ot'  winter^  and  iiie  rotting  of  the  herbage,  will 
richly  r^poy  the  .expense,  in  your  succeedmg  crops. 


NOVEMBER. 

Your  carrots,  potatoes,  and  other  roots,  together 
with  your  Indian-corn  and  flax,  must  now  all  be  secur- 
ed and  housed  ;  and  your  hemp  is  also  housed,  or  un- 
der a  proper  management,  and  in  a  good  way.  Your 
orchards  are  cleared  and  your  cider  all  made,  and 
your  ridge-ploughing  for  winter  generally  through  : 
now  let  your  farm-yard  claim  your  first  attenilion. 
Cart  on  to  your  mowing  grounds  all  the  hianure  col- 
lected in  your  barn-yard  and  in  your  stercoraries  and 
hog-pcns  through  the  summer,  spreadit  in  moist  wea- 
ther, or  before  a  rain,  as  even  as  possible,  and  brush 
it  down  thoroughly  with  a  light  harrow,  or  a  thorn- 
bush,  or  any  other  bush  that  will  answer  the  purpose  ; 
your  moist  grass  grounds  which  cannot  be  washed 
by  drains,  or  enrichexl  with  plaster,  ajid^  your  young 
clover,  claim  your  first  attention  for  fall  manuring. 
Two  loads  of  dung  well  spread  on  grass  lands  in  the 
fall,  are  equal  to  three  in  the  spring,  in  ordinary  sea- 
sons;  but  if  the  following  May  and  summer  should 
prove  dry,  two  loads  in  the  fall  are  equal  to  four  ia 
in  the  spring.  This  is  too  serious  an  advantage  to 
be  neglected.  After  all  your  care  and  attention  to 
this  most  important  branch  of  good  farming,  through 
the  summer  and  autumn,  if  your  dung  should  fall  short  of 
your  demands,  you  may  now  supply  the  defect,  by  re- 
serving your  high  and  dry  gravelly  and  sandy  lands 


THE  farmer's  manual.  103 

for  your  plaster  of  paris,  and  dress  with  one,  two,  or 
three  bushels  to  the  acre,  as  the  tillage  may  require; 
and  upon  your  moister  grounds,  you  may  spread  your 
live,  or  leached  ashes,  in  broad-cast,  according  to  the 
quantity  you  can  collect;  they  will  richly  repay  for 
several  successive  seasons. 

Drains  which  convey  a  wash  on  to  your  mow- 
ing grounds,  are  of  the  highest  value,  and  now 
claim  your  serious  attention ;  therefore,  repair, 
njend  and  secure  your  dams  ;  dig  or  plough  out 
your  dr-ains,  change  their  directions  on  to  a  new 
surface,  (otherwise  the  parts  last  washed  will  be  in- 
jured by  becoming  too  rich  and  rank,  and  your  grass 
will  come  forward  and  lodge,  and  rot  at  bottom,  be- 
fore the  other  parts  of  your  field  are  fit  to  (mow)  cut, 
and  thus  you  suffer  a  two,  or  three-fold  waste  from 
your  inattention.)  One  gallon  of  water  in  winter, 
from  the  rains  and  melted  snows,  will  exceed  in  va- 
lue many  gallons  of  summer  water^  when  applied  as 
a  wash  to  your  mowing  grounds.  Your  barn-yards 
being  cleared  as  above,  and  your  drains  well  secur- 
ed, and  as  well  directed  ;  your  stabling  and  sheds  to 
receive  your  stock,  next  claim  your  attention.  If  you 
are  ready  for  the  expense  without  injuring  your  other 
improvements,  or  contracting  debts,  {a  farmer  should 
never  he  in  debt,)  let  your  barn  face  the  south,  en- 
close one  rood  of  land,  or  less,  (according  to  the  num- 
ber of  your  stock,)  in  a  square  form,  erect  low  and 
frame  sheds  upon  the  east  and  w^est  sides  of  your 
yard,  with  a  single  roof,  that  shall  convey  the  water, 
or  rains,  off  from  the  yard  ;  let  the  sheds  extend  as  a 
side  fence  upon  two  sides  of  your  barn-yard,  from  the 
corners  of  your  barn,  with  cribs,  or  racks,  for  your 
cattle  to  feed.  Next  to  good  feeding,  are  warm  and 
dry  coverings  for  your  stock.  Let  your  barn-yard 
form  a  gentle  xlescent,  at  or  near  to  one  corner,  where 
the  heavy  rains  may  settle  5  throw  into  this  the  coarse 
clearings  of  your  cribs,  refuse  straw,  buck-wheat 
straw,  &c.  these  will  fennent5  and  form  a  reservoir  of 


104  THE  farmer's  manual* 

long  dung  in  the  spring  to  dress  your  corn  and  pota- 
toe  grounds.  Let  your  barn-yard  be  furnished  with 
separate  racks  standing  in  the  open  air;  into  these, 
throw  your  loose  straw  when  you  feed  out  your  clo- 
ver in  your  cribs ;  your  horses  and  cattle  will  eat  up 
your  straw  clean  in  this  way,  and  to  good  profit,  by 
passing  alternately  or  successively  from  the  cribs  of 
clover,  to  the  racks  of  straw,  and  thus  mixing  them  to 
their  liking. 

In  stabling,  it  is  of  the  first  importance  that  your 
cracks  be  battened,  your  windows  and  doors  snug  and 
tight,  your  floors  tight  and  secure,  your  mangers 
strong  and  tight,  that  you  may  feed  with  carrots,  po- 
tatoes, or  turnips,  as  occasion  may  require  ;  thus  you 
will  have  the  double  advantage  of  good  feeding,  and 
warm  stables  ;  both  which  are  of  the  first  importance 
in  good  farming. 

If  you  cannot  aflbrd  the  expense  upon  your  barn- 
yard as  above,  you  may  make  cheap  sheds  for  your 
stock  upon  the  sides  of  your  yard  as  above,  by  set- 
ting substantial  crotches,  at  proper  distances,  as  sup- 
porters ;  place  such  poles  as  you  can  conveniently  col- 
lect,upon  your  crotches,  with  others  extending  across, 
with  a  gentle  slope,  or  descent ;  cover  with  coarse 
hay,  or  straw,  as  is  most  convenient:  a  few  boards, 
of  any  quality,  tacked  upon  the  back  sides,  will 
shield  your  cattle  from  the  winds,  and  make  a  cheap 
fence,  at  the  same  time.  You  may  reserve  from  your 
fences,  when  you  repair  them,  such  posts  as  are  sound 
at  top,  and  have  rotted  ofiT  at  bottom,  and  set  with 
these  a  crib  fence  three  rails  high,  and  of  a  suitable 
width  :  they  will  stand  well  several  years,  and 
make  you  the  same  saving  of  hay  as  the  nicest  cribs. 
You  may  also  construct  straw  racks  in  your  yard, 
by  setting  down  two  posts,  with  one  rail  fixed  in  tine 
posts  of  a  suitable  height,  and  place  a  number  of  old 
refuse,  or  broken  j-ails,  upon  each  side,  alternately, 
to  rest  upon  the  rail  fixed  in  the  posts,  as  a  support- 
er, and  extending  its  whole  length,  fixing  the  bolton: 


THE  farmer's  manual.  103 

of  the  cross  rails  firm  in  the  ground,  with  a  slant  to 
your  liking,  to  form  your  rack.  These  cribs,  and 
racks  will  be  both  cheap,  and  of  a  great  saving  in 
your  feeding. 

Draw  your  late  rotted  hemp  and  set  it  up  across 
your  fences,  for  a  winter's  drying.  Cart  into  your 
barn-yard  every  thing  that  may  be  converted  into 
manure.  Crop  lightly  your  late  feeding  grounds, 
such  as  clover,  timothy,  or  English  mowing,  both  by 
3/our  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Feed  off  your  turnips 
with  your  sheep,  as  they  stand,  by  the  use  of  hurdles, 
if  possible,  and  in  the  following  manner,  viz.  collect 
a  number  of  chesnut  stakes  6  feet  long,  and  about  3 
inches. square,  and  sharpen  them  at  the  bottom  ;  nail 
on  to  two  of  these  stakes  five  strips  of  boards,  (saw- 
ed for  the  purpose,)  of  about  4  or  5  inches  wide,  and 
10  or  12  feet  long,  fasten  each  strip  with  two  10  pen- 
ny nails,  in  each  stake,  thus  nailing  on  the  five  strips 
at  such  distances  as  will  be  of  sufficient  height  to  se- 
cure your  sheep  in  their  enclosure.  When  you  have 
prepared  a  sufficient  number  of  hurdles  to  enclose 
one  or  two  roods  of  your  turnip  field,  let  two  hands 
set  the  hurdles  for  the  enclosure,  with  a  crow-bar,  or 
a  wooden  bar  sharpened  for  the  purpose ;  this  may 
be  done  quick,  and  at  very  small  expense,  in  the 
following  manner  ;  let  one  hand  (after  the  hurdles  are 
laid  round  the  place  of  enclosure,)  hold  up  a  hurdle 
erect,  and  the  other  with  the  bar  strike  into  the  earth 
(he  holes  for  the  stakes,  (at  the  foot  of  each  stake.) 
then  plant  the  hurdle;  then  the  next,  and  so  on  in 
succession  until  the  enclosure  is  finished  ;  then  turn 
in  your  sheep,  cows,  or  cattle  ;  when  one  enclosure 
is  fed  off  and  you  have  a  desire  to  enrich  that  parti- 
cular spot,  for  any  special  purpose,  as  for  onions, 
carrots,  scarcity-root,  &c*.  you  may  pull  the  rest  of 
your  field  and  cart  on  your  turnips  and  feed  them  upon 
the  spot ;  but  if  it  is  your  wish  to  enrich  your  whole 
field  for  wheat  and  clover  ;  you  may  remove  your  hur- 
dles, and  set  again,  and  thus  feed  off  the  whole  crops 


106  THE  farmer's  manual. 

this  easy  way  of  enriching  your  farm,  together  with 
its  profits,  needs  no  comment.  One  set  of  hurdles 
wilJ  last,  with  careful  usage,  and  careful  housing,  20, 
30,  40,  or  50  years,  provided  they  are  taken  up  and 
secured  before  the  frosts  of  winter  fix  them  in  the 
ground,  and  thus  expose  them  to  the  weather  unne- 
cessarily over  the  v/inter.  Cover  with  deep  plough- 
ing the  manure  of  the  first  enclosure,  as  soon  as  you 
have  changed  your  feeding;  this  will  secure  against 
all  loss  from  evaporation  by  the  sun,  and  give  your 
land  an  immediate  advantage  from  the  fermentation, 
before  the  frosts  of  winter  set  in.  Plough  in  this 
manner  successively,  at  your  several  movings,  until 
you  have  fed  and  manured  your  whole  field ;  thys  your 
land  is  prepared  for  any  crop  you  may  choose,  and 
at  a  smcrll  expense,  with  a  handsome  profit.  Your 
fat  sheep  are  now  ready  for  market,  and  your  lambs  and 
store  sheep  are  prepared  to  winter,  safe  and  cheap. 
The  growth  on  your  wool  will  repay  all  your  ex- 
penses, both  in  its  quantity  and  quality. 

Plough  up  clean  and  deep  such  stubble,  or  sward 
grounds  as  you  design  for  Indian-corn  the  next  sea- 
son, particularly  such  as  are  accustomed  to  be  eaten 
by  the  cut,  or  grub-worm  ;  you  v/ill  find  this  practice 
an  effectual  remedy.  Salt  vvhen  sown  on  the  sward, 
will  produce  the  same  effect. 

Harrow  your  land,  when  ploughed,  as  fine  as  possi- 
ble ;  this  will  prepare  it  to  receive  a  benefit  from  the 
air  and  frosts  of  winter,  that  will  richly  repay  your 
trouble  in  the  next  crop,  whatever  it  may  be. 

Flouse  your  cabbages  ;  set  oiit  in  some  convenient 
part  of  your  cellar  such  as  you  design  for  the  table, 
and  |)Iace  those  intended  for  stock  in  some  open  shed, 
or  loft,  where  they  will  lie  secure  against  heating  un- 
til they  are   fed  out. — See  Stock. 

Pull  and  house  your  turnips  designed  for  market- 
and  the  table,  or  winter  feeding,  and  secure  them  'v 
your  cellar  against  frost. 


.TOE  farmer's  manual.  107 

DECEMBER. 

Your  farming  is  now  all  done,  and  I  trust  well 
done;  no  man  hos  thrown  away  a  dollar  unnecessa- 
rily upon  new  and  visionary  schemes,  by  making 
experiments  upon  English  farming  in  our  country; 
or  lost  two  dollars  in  saving  the  expense  of  one  cent 
in  not  increasing  his  stock  of  manure,  ploughing, 
and  tilling  his  fields,  draining  and  bogging  his  wet 
mowing  grounds,  or  not  manuring,  plastering,  or 
washing  his  dry  mowing  grounds,  or  by  not  rinsing 
and  steeping  his  seed-wheat,  or  by  sowing  too  spar- 
ingly, or  by  not  steeping  and  plastering  his  seed-rye, 
oats,  barley,  &c.  or  by  neglecting  to  steep  his  Indian- 
corn  at  planting,  and  rolling  it  in  plaster,  or  even  by 
not  plastering  or  ashing  the  hills,  or  even  by  neglect- 
ing to  plaster  his  potatoes  at  planting,  or  at  hoeing; 
or  what  is  worse  than  all,  by  neglecting  to  plaster 
his  young  clover,  and  suffering  his  fences  to  be  out 
of  repair,  and  thus  waste  his  crops;  with  all  the 
train  of  evils  which  follow ;  poverty,  disgrace,  dis- 
tress and  ruin.  1  am  persuaded  that  every  farmer 
who  reads  this  work,  has  applied  his  money  liberally, 
and  to  the  best  advantage,  and  is  now  prepared  to 
amuse  himself  in  the  care  of  his  stock,  in  the  social 
enjoyment  of  his  friends,  his  family,  and  his  fire-side, 
through  the  long  approaching  winter,  with  his  heart 
full  of  gratitude  to  that  God  who  is  the  parent  of  Na- 
ture, and  of  all  her  productions,  and  who  has  thus 
enriched  him  with  the  bounties  of  his  common  provi- 
dence, rewarded  liberally  the  labours  of  hi«  hands, 
and  given  him  all  things  so  richly  to  enjoy. 

Farmers,  you  are,  under  God,  the  lords  of  this 
lower  creation  ;  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  God, 
you  till  the  earth,  nature's  vast  store-house;  into 
your  hands  she  pours  her  wealth,  through  a  thousand 
tributary  streams,  and  from  your  stores  are  fed  the 
inhabitants  of  the  palace,  and  the  cot.  This  high,, 
this  elevated,  this  ennobled  rank  in  life,  is  calculated 


108  THE  FARMER^S  MANUAL, 

to  show  you  your  dependence  upon  God,  the  authot 
of  nature,  of  nature's  laws,  and  of  nature's  works  : 
to  teach  you  such  humility  as  will  necessarily  result 
from  these  conclusions,  that  although  you  can  plough 
and  plant,  sow  and  reap,  yet  of  yourselves,  you  can- 
not produce  one  spire  of  grass,  or  explain  how  it  is 
produced  ;  you  cannot  eftect  the  formation  of  one 
shower,  or  explain  its  effects  upon  the  vegetable 
world  ;  this  should  teach  you  love  to  God,  and  bene- 
volence to  men ;  freely  you  have  received,  freely 
give.  From  the  vast  store-house  of  nature,  your 
cup  overflows  with  her  richest  blessings  ;  it  becomes 
your  duty  to  use  them  without  abusing  them.  Select 
a  full  share  of  the  best  for  your  own  comforts  ;  impart 
in  fair  market,  for  the  support  of  the  community, 
such  as  the  consumption  demands,  and  the  reasonable 
support  of  your  revenue  requires  ;  and,  with  the  re- 
mainder, be  liberal  to  the  virtuous  and  industrious 
poor.  These  are  plain  practical  duties  ;  but  sources 
of  incalculable  satisfaction  and  enjoyment. 

In  my  remarks  under  September,  the  care  of  your 
orchard  was  noticed  ;  let  me  call  your  attention  to  an 
important  article  of  this  valuable  and  productive 
part  of  good  farming.  Select  some  convenient  part 
of  your  garden,  or  field,  contiguous  to  your  house  ; 
plough  it  early  in  this  month  ;  harrow  and  strike  it  out 
with  your  plough  into  rows  four  feet  asunder ;  strew 
these  furrows  with  pumice  from  your  cider-mill,  (se- 
lect the  pumice  from  such  fruit  as  you  would  wish  \o 
cultivate,)  and  cover  it  lightly  with  the  plough  ;  keep 
down  the  weeds  for  2  or  3  succeeding  years,* until 
your  trees  have  acquired  the  height  of  3  or  4  feet ; 
thin  out  and  transplant,  at  the  same  time,  leaving  the 
trees  in  your  rows  6,  8,  or  10  inches  asunder.  At 
this  stage  of  your  nursery,  (2  or  3  years  growth,)  you 
may  propagate  such  fruit-as  you  may  choose,  by  bud- 
ding, (a  mode  more  safe  and  expeditious  than  graft- 
ing,) without  checking  the  growth  of  your  trees. 
For  particulars  on  budding  and  grafting,  see  Garden- 


THE    farmer's    manual.  101) 

mg.  Such  trees  as  have  already  come  to  maturity  for 
field  setting,  may  be  removed  to  the  best  advantage 
in  this  month,  for  three  important  reasons,  viz. 

1.  The  farmer  generally  has  more  leisure  time, 
than  in  April. 

2.  If  the  trees  are  taken  up  when  the  top  of  the 
ground  is  slightly  frozen,  so  as  to  hold  the  earth  about 
the  roots  of  the  trees,  they  will  be  sure  to  live. 

3.  In  setting,  be  sure  not  to  plant  your  trees  be- 
low the  rich  mould ;  fill  in  with  the  richest  of  the 
mould,  and  give  a  top  dressing.  With  this,  they 
will  be  more  sure  than  when  set  in  the  spring. 

Now  is  the  time  to  form  your  orchards  to  the  best 
advantage  ;  therefore,  never  sufler  your  trees  to  begin 
to  head  short  of  six  feet,  and  even  ten  would  be  bet- 
ter than  six;  this  would  admit  the  sun  and  air,  to 
warm  and  fertilize  the  ground  under  your  trees, 
which  will  not  only  cause  them  to  yield  more,  and 
better  fruit,  but  enable  you  to  obtain  about  as  much 
grass  under  the  trees,  as  in  the  open  air ;  and  in  dry 
seasons,  you  may  obtain  more.  This  culture  will 
also  repay  double  for  manuring,  both  in  the  products 
of  the  orchard,  and  the  hay. 

Stock. 

Your  fences  are  all  in  such  repair,  that  neither 
your  own,  nor  your  neighbour's  hogs,  sheep,  or  cat- 
tle, can  take  advantage  of  an  open  winter  to  feed  on 
your  mowing  grounds,  or  your  winter  grain,  or 
injure  your  crops  in  the  spring  before  the  frost  is 
gone  sufficiently  for  you  to  repair  your  fences.  This 
is  an  article  of  the  first  imporlance,  and  which  no 
careful  farmer  will  neglect. 

Your  carts,  hnrrows  and  ploughs,  together  vrith  all 
the  implements- of  the  summer's  tillage,  are  securely 
housed.  Your  wood-house  is  well  stored  with  wood 
kept  over  the  summer,  to  last  you  until  the  season  of 
good  sledding   arrives.     You  have  plied  voi:r  hoo-< 

10 


110  THE  farmer's  manual. 

since  the  first  of  September,  with  pumpkins,  or  car- 
rots, and  potatoes  well  boiled  and  mixed  with  bran, 
or  meal,  and  you  arc  now  driving  them  with  Indian- 
corn,  cither  shelled  and  boiled,  or  boiled  upon  the 
cob;  this  mode  of  boiling  your  corn,  has  been  prov- 
ed to  exceed  in  value  the  same  quantity  when  ground, 
and  ^iven  in  the  usual  way;  and  thereby  the  expense 
of  toll,  and  going  to  the  mill,  are  saved;  the  pork 
will  be  equally  hard  and  good.  No  more  expense 
will  be  necessary,  in  boiling  a  kettle  of  corn  or  po- 
tatoes, that  will  hold  a  barrel,  than  in  boiling  your 
tea-kettle,  for  the  same  time ;  one  gallon  of  water 
will  be  sufficient,  provided  you  cover  your  corn,  or 
potatoes  close  with  dry  bran  or  meal,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  steam  from  escaping  :  where  fuel  is  scarce, 
this    saving    will   be   an    object  of  attention. 

You  have  now  collected  all  your  stock  from  your 
p?>stures,  and  closed  your  fields  for  the  winter.  You 
have  selected  such  cattle  as  you  have  designed  for 
market,  and  are  now  closing  your  sales,  particularly 
all  horses,  not  immediately  useful  and  necessary. 
This  animal  is  of  the  least  value  to  winter  over,  of 
any  of  your  stock.  He  requires  your  best  feed,  and 
gives  you  very  liltle  productive  labour  in  winter; 
yields  you  neither  beef,  nor  wool,  in  the  spring,  and 
never  advances  his  price  in  the  spring  market,  equal 
to  one-fourth  of  the  expense  of  wintering,  exclusive 
of  risk  and  trouble  :  both  which  are  very  considera- 
ble. Let  your  working  cattle,  cows,  sheep,  and  such 
young  stock  as  you  can  be  sure  to  feed  well  over 
the  winter,  be  selected  as  the  special  objects  of  your 
winter's  care  ;  and  be  sure  to  market  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage all  the  supernumeraries.  The  difference  ia 
the  value  between  either  of  these  articles  of  stock, 
which  are  full  fed,  and  well  kept  over  the  winter,  and 
those  half  fed,  and  poorly  kept,  is  greater  than  I 
should  dare  to  name ;  not  only  in  its  value  the  ensu- 
ing spring,  but  for  all  succeeding  purposes  of  such 
stock* 


THE    FARMER'S    MANUAL.  iH 

Your  barn-yards  are  cleared  of  their  summer's  ma- 
nure, all  which  is  well  spread  upon  your  mowing 
rrvounds',  {see  article  mamire  ^)  your  sheds  and  racks 
are  all  prepared  ;  your  stables  are  rendered  tight  and 
warm ;  your  barns,  as  well  as  your  houses,  are  all 
patched  wherever  a  shingle  is  missing  ;  the  glass  is 
all  set  in  your  houses  ;  your  house-doors,  and  barn^ 
doors,  are  all  rendered  tight  and  secure  •,  your  cellars, 
are  all  banked  up  where  it  is  necessary,  and  thus  ren- 
dered  secure  from  the  frosts  of  winter.     Your  cidei 
is  all  got  in,  and  put  up  upon  the  stalls;  such  apples 
as  you  put  up  in  barrels  for  the  use  of  the  family,  are 
now  snug  in  your  cellar ;  your  turnips  are  dug  and 
housed,  and  your  cabbages  are  all  pulled,  and  such 
as  you  intend  for  the  table,  are  carefully  set  out  in 
the  driest  part  of  your  cellar;    such   carrots,  beets 
and  parsnips,  as  you  design  for  the  table,  would  pay 
you  well  in  their  relish  and  flavour,  if  you  will  pack 
them   in  sand,  in  dry  casks.     Such  turnips  as  you 
wish  to  keep  late,  and  preserve  from  being  pithy,  co- 
ver under  a  heap  of  loose  potatoes,  where  you  can 
conveniently  draw  them  when  wanted  ;  you  will  pre- 
serve them  pure  over  to  the  spring.     Your  French 
and  Swedish  turnips,*will  then  supply  for  the  sum- 
mer. 

In  selecting  your  stock  for  the  winter,  you  have 
been  careful  to  reserve  such,  and  such  only,  as  are 
of  the  best  size  and  form,  and  such  as  show  the  great- 
est disposition  to  fatten,  at  the  least  expense,  and  are 
the  most  orderly  and  manageable;  having  disposed 
of  all  the  ill-shaped,  unruly,  unmanageable,  and  of  a 
lean  disposition  ;  in  this  way,  you  will  in  a  few  years 
have  under  your  care  a  perfect  stock,  if  you  are  care- 
ful at  the  same  time  to  select  the  best  size  and  form 
of  each  kind,  to  propagate  with,  or  encourage  your 
neighbours,  by  propagating  from  theirs  if  they  sur- 
pass yours.  The  cultivation  of  your  farms,  by  good 
husbandry,  has  not  only  taught  you  how  to  raise  the 
value  of  your  lands,  and  increase  the  profits  upon  your 


i  12  THE 

crops,  at  the  same  time,  by  tillage,  but  has  taught 
you^  also,  that  the  same  attention  to  your  stock,  will 
enable  you  to  derive  the  same  profits  from  this  source 
of  winter's  husbandry. 

The  general  hints  given  as  above  upon  the  neces- 
sary attention  to  your  stock,  will  be  sufficient  to  ex- 
cite  the  farming  interest  generally  to  their  stock; 
but  the  best  mode  of  effecting  this,  may  be  learnt  from 
the  practice  of  Mr.  Bakewell,  the  noted  reclaimer 
and  cultivator  of  the  Diskley  farm,  (so  called,)  in  Eng- 
land. 

*'  The  choice  of  the  best  breed  of  horses,  cattle, 
sheep  and  hogs,  which  is  too  little  regarded,  is  of 
great  importance  to  a  farmer,  and  deserves  his  nicest 
attention.  The  expense  is  as  great,  nay,  many  times 
greater,  in  keeping  a  creature  of  a  bad  breed,  as  of  a 
good,  and  the  value  is  very  different.  It  appears 
that  the  Canada  breed  of  horses  would  be  found  ex- 
cellent for  the  plough,  or  draught,  and  the  Esopus 
breed  for  the  carriage.  In  the  choice  of  horses,  the 
form  should  be  particularly  attended  to.  The  Cana- 
da breed  comes  the  nearest  to  the  form  of  horses  in 
the  highest  esteem  in  England,  for  draught,  viz.  that 
of  a  true  round  barrel,  remarkably  short,  and  lower 
over  the  forehand  than  any  part  of  the  back,  the  legs 
also  short.  The  Esopus  breed,  of  a  proper  size,  are 
f^ightly  horses  for  a  carriage  ;  they  are  gentle,  tracta- 
ble, and  easily  broke,  and  yet  have  a  proper  degree 
of  spirit,  have  a  good  carriage,  are  easily  kept,  and 
.  hardy.  The  Narragansett  breed  have  been  account- 
ed excellent  for  the  saddle.  A  cross  breed  with  the 
Narragansett  and  Esopus,  or  with  the  English,  (known 
by  the  name  of  the  old  Ranger  breed,)  have  been  ac- 
counted the  best  for  the  saddle  in  New-England." — 
Thompson's  J^oles  on  Farmings 

These  breeds  are  nearly  extinct  in  Connecticut; 
but  with  proper  attention  they  might  be  restored. 

''  Mr.  Bakewell  (of  the  Diskley  farm  in  England) 
hag  rendered  himself  famous  by  his  breed  of  cattle. 


THE    rARMER\s    MANUAL.  H^ 

His  principal  aim  is  to  gain  the  best,  whether  sheep 
or  cow,  which  will  weigh  the  most  in  the  most  valua- 
ble joints ;  and  at  the  same  time  that  he  gains  the 
shape  which  is  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  smallest 
compass,  he  finds  by  experience  that  he  gains  a 
breed  much  hardier  and  easier  fed  than  others.  In 
his  breed  of  cattle,  his  maxim  is,  the  smaller  the 
bones  the  truer  will  be  the  make  of  the  beast ;  the 
quicker  it  will  fatten,  and  the  weight  will  have  a  lar- 
ger proportion  of  valuable  meat,'' 

The  shape,  which  should  be  the  criterion  of  an  or, 
bull,  sheep,  or  cow,  is  that  of  a  hogshead,  or  barrel, 
truly  circular,  with  small,  and  as  short  legs  as  possi- 
ble ;  upon  this  plain  principle,  that  the  value  lies  in 
the  body,  and  not  in  the  legs.  All  breeds  whose 
backs  rise  in  a  ridge,  arc  bad. 

By  proper  management,  Mr.  Bakewell  brings  up 
his  cattle  in  amazing  gentleness  ;  his  bulls  stand  still 
in  the  field  to  be  handled ;  they  are  driven  from  field 
to  field  with  a  small  switch.  His  cattle  are  always 
fat,  and  this  he  insists  is  owing  to  their  breed. 

The  small  quantity,  and  inferior  quality  of  food, 
that  will  keep  a  beast  perfectly  well  made,  in  good 
order,  is  surprising.  Such  an  animal  will  grow  fat 
in  a  pasture  which  would  starve  one  with  great 
bones  and  ill  made. 

Mr.  Bakewell  is  equally  curious  in  the  breed  of  his 
sheep.  The  bodies  of  his  rams  and  ewes  are  as  true 
barrels  as  can  be  seen ;  round  broad  backs,  and  the 
legs  not  more  than  six  inches  long.  An  unusual 
proof  of  their  kindly  fattening,  is  their  feeling  quite 
fat  between  the  fore-legs,  upon  the  ribs,  where  the 
common  kind  never  carry  any  fat. 

He  finds  that  hardly  any  land  is  too  bad  for  a  good 
breed  of  cattle,  and  hardly  any  good  enough  to  make 
a  bad  breed  profitable. 

With  regard   to  the  rot  in  sheep,  Mr.   Bakewell 
thinks  it  is  solely  owing  to  their  feeding  on  lands 
which  have  been  flooded  :  hence  it  appears,  that  sheep 
10* 


^^4  THE    FARMER^S    MANUAL^ 

should  not  be  suffered  to  feed  on  watered  raeadows^ 
Water  flowing  over  grass-grounds  after  the  first  of 
May,  is  sure  to  give  your  sheep  the  rot,  whatever  be 
the  soil, 

Mr.  Bakewell  is  remarkably  attentive  to  the  point 
of  wintering  his  cattle.  All  his  horned  cattle  are 
tied  up  in  open,  or  other  sheds,  all  winter,  and  fed 
according  to  their  kind,  on  straw,  turnips,  or  hay. 
The  lean  beasts  have  straw  alone.  Young  cattle, 
which  require  to  be  kept  in  a  thriving  state,  and  fat- 
tening ones,  are  fed  with  turnips ;  and  in  the  spring, 
when  the  turnips  are  gone,  hay  is  their  only  substi- 
tute ;  by  these  means,  he  is  able  to  keep  a  large 
.tock.  His  farm,  in  all,  consists  of  440  acres;  110 
jf  which,  are  arable,  and  the  rest  is  grass ;  and  he 
vceps  60  horses,  400  large  sheep,  150  horned  cattle, 
and  has  generally  13  acres  of  wheat,  and  25  of  spring 
grain. 

It  deserves  particular  notice,  that  Mr.  Bakewell 
pays  a  yearly  rent  for  this  farm  ;  and  when  he  came 
into  possession,  the  farm  was  so  low,  from  bad  ma- 
nagement, as  to  render  it  very  diflBcult  to  rent  it  at 
rmy  price. 

The  first  attention  of  Mr.  Bakewell,  upon  en- 
tering this  farm,  was  turned  to  the  improvement  of 
his  stock;  this-  he  effected  in  a  gradual  manner,  by 
procuring  the  best  breeds  for  their  general  propaga- 
ion,  until  he  raised  the  reputation  of  his  farm,  and  of 
nis  stock,  to  a  rank  of  the  first  eminence  in  England. 

The  method  of  littering  horses  and  cattle,  as  is  of- 
-cn  practised  both  in  England  and  America,  not  only 
lenders  the  animals  so  much  more  warm  and  com- 
rbrtable,  as  to  lessen  the  expense  of  food,  but  great- 
ly increases*  the  quantity  of  manure,  by  preparing 
10  or  15  loads  of  long  dung  to  each  creature,  in  a 
winter,  so  stabled  and  littered,  either  with  coarse  hay, 
htraw,  &c.  and  thereby  furnishes  the  means  of  saving 
ihe  whole  (or  nearly)  expense  of  wintering,  in  the 
next  year's  tillage.     Now  if  we  take  into  considcra- 


THE  farmer's  manual.  115 

tion,  the  extra  number  of  stock  the  same  farm  would 
keep  by  the  culture  of  the  potatoe,  as  a  fallow  crop, 
and  thus  increase  the  quantity  of  manure,  by  consum- 
ing the  straw,  &c.  for  litter,  and  thus  again,  by  the 
help  of  the  manure  to  increase  the  quantity  of  hay, 
grain  and  straw,  as  well  as  potatoes,  &c,  it  will  at 
once  be  seen,  that  under  this  management,  all  our 
farms  may  become  Disklcy  farms,  and  all  our  farmers 
gain  the  wealth  and  reputation  of  Mr.  Bakewell  ;  be- 
sides, the  pleasure  of  managing  such  a  farm,  will,  of 
itself,  doubly  compensate  all  extra  care  and  attention. 


JANUARY. 

^'^our  pork  hogs  are  all  now  killed,  and  doubtless 
marketted  to  the  best  advantage,  excepting  a  good 
supply  of  the  best,  which  you  have  carefully  reserv- 
ed for  your  own  use.  Your  hams  and  chops,  are  all 
put  into  a  strong  pickle,  to  prepare  them  for  smoking  ; 
if  you  have  saltpetre,  put  it'into  the  pickle  with  your 
hams,  and  if  the  barrel  or  tub  is  crowded,  turn  them 
often  ;  and  at  the  end  of  4  or  5  weeks,  hang  them  up 
for  smoking.  If  by  any  means  your  saltpetre  should 
not  be  dissolved  in  your  pickle  with  your  hams,  you 
may  pulverize  it  at  the  time  of  taking  the  hams  out 
of  pickle,  and  with  a  wet  cloth  rub  over  the  hams 
wnth  the  saltpetre,  particularly  at  each  end,  around 
the  bones,  say  loz.  to  each  ham  ;  it  will  strike  through 
immediately,  and  your  hams,  when  smoked,  will  be  as 
high  coloured,  and  as  tender,  as  when  preserved  in 
the  saltpetre  pickle.  Entire  accident  discovered  this 
method,  and  frequent  practices  has  confirmed  it. 
Your  beef  is  also  all  marketted,  or  put  up  for  your 
own  use,  excepting  such  as  you  design  for  your  win- 
ter's feeding.  If  you  feed  with  carrots,  your  cattle 
will  require  some  water,  but  if  upon  potatoes,  they 
will  do  best,  after  the  first  week,  to  be  fed  withou 


116  THE  FARMER^S  MANUAL* 

water;  the  moisture  of  the  potatoe  will  be  found  suf- 
ficient. You  may  now  bej^in  to  realize  the  value  of 
your  potatoe  fallows ;  your  beef-cattle  will  fatten 
faster  than  in  the  usual  method,  upon  meal  and  pro- 
vinder,  and  your  corn  may  be  sav^ed  over  for  the 
spring  and  summer  markets,  which  always  com- 
mands cash,  and  a  good  price.  Your  cattle  kept  for 
labour,  will  pay  you  in  their  appearance,  in  their  ex- 
tra labour,  and  in  the  saving  of  your  hay,  if  you 
give  them  one  peck  a  head  each  day.  Your  cows, 
also,  will  repay  you  in  their  milk,  as  well  as  in  their 
appearance,  and  saving  of  hay,  if  you  give  each  one 
a  peck  of  potatoes  each  day :  but  this  is  not  all,  they 
will  make  you  more  butter  from  the  same  milk,  and 
pay  double  the  next  summer  in  your  dairy*. 

I  have  before  me  an  experiment  upon  fattening 
beef,  published  by  Mr.  Nathan  Landon,  -of  Li-ich- 
field  ;  in  which  he  states,  that  he  fattened  an  ox,  and 
a  three  year  old  heifer,  \viUiout  either  corn,  or  pota- 
toes, for  a  less  expense  than  even  a  common  feeding, 
and  in  the  following  manner,  viz.  *'  1  boiled  about 
two  quarts  of  flax-seed,'  and  sprinkled  on  to  cut 
straw,  which  had  been  previously  scalded,  and  sea- 
soned with  salt,  together  with  some  oil-cake,  and 
oat-meal ;  working  them  in  a  tub,  with  a  short  pitch- 
fork, until  the  whole  became  an  oily  mush.  I  fed 
the  heifer  regularly  in  this  way,  about  two  months, 
when  she  had  eaten  about  one  bushel  of  flax-seed, 
with  the  other  ingredients  in  proportion.  When  she 
was  butchered,  she  weighed  584lbs. ;  84lbs.  of  which 
was  tallow.     She  would  not  have  sold  for  more  than 

*  One  acre  of  potatoes  properly  fed  out  to  your  stock,  will  afford 
you  manure  lo  dress  two  acres  well  the  next  year ;  the  profits  on 
your  stock,  and  on  your  extra  crops,  from  your  extra  manure  and 
tillage,  will  be  your  second  profit ;  the  increased  value  of  your  land, 
will  be  your  third  profit ;  and  ag;ain,  the  increased  quantity  of  stock  this 
will  enable  you  to  keep,  and  thus,  in  a  chain,  augment  your  wealth, 
together  with  the  value  of  your  farm,  will  be  a  constant  profit ;  this 
may  not  only  be  witnessed  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Bakewell,  but  in  tlv 
case  of  every  farmer  who  will  practise  it.     Try  and  see. 


THE  farmer's  manual.  117 

,^16  before  fattening.  I  sold  two  quarters  of  her 
for  $  IS  13,  She  cost  me  not  more  than  ^10,  ex- 
clusive of  the  hay  she  ate,  which  was  chiefly  scald- 
ed, as  above.  On  the  first  of  February,  I  began  with 
the  ox.  I  fed  him  about  three  months,  but  not  altoge- 
ther as  well  as  I  did  the  heifer.  He  digested  about 
one  peck  of  boiled  flax-seed  per  day,  prepared  as 
above,  which  1  suppose  formed  about  one  half  of 
the  fat  in  these  two  cattle.  The  ox  was  short,  mea- 
sured 7  feet  2  inches,  and  when  killed,  weighed 
1082lbs.  and  had  180lbs.  of  tallow.  He  cost  me 
when  fattening,  25  cents  per  day :  he  had  previously 
cost  me  $  35.  My  nett  gain  in  fattening  these  two 
catde,  was  more  than  all  I  have  cleared  before  in 
fattening  oxen  and  cows,  for  fifteen  years,  and  this  is 
owing  1  think  chiefly  to  the  use  of  flax-seed"^." 

Since  writing  the  above  extract,  I  have  seen  an 
extract  from  the  Berkshire  Star,  recommending  the  use 
of  flax-seed  ii^raising  calves,  as  follows,  viz. 

''  Boil  half  a  pint  of  flax-seed  in  two  quarts  of 
water  ten  minutes,  to  a  jelly  ;  then  add  skim-milk 
enough  for  three  calves,  or  in  the  same  proportion 
for  any  number  of  calves.  This  food,  given  twice 
a  day,  or  thrice,  will  make  them  healthy  and  vigor- 
ous. The  jelly  may  be  used  with  hay-tea,  without 
the  milk." 

This  method  is  now  coming  into  general  use,  and 
it  will  enable  dairy  farmers  to  enlarge  their  stock, 
without  injuring  their  dairies. 

Your  horses,  kept  either  for  the  saddle,  or  the 
harness,  will  perform  more  service  when  fed  upon 
potatoes,  than  upon  oats,  or  grain,  and  will  not  readi- 
ly have  the  bots,  or  heaves.  Even  your  young  cat- 
tle and  horses,  will  richly  pay  you  for  a  few  potatoes 
occasionally,  both  in  their  appearance  and  growth. 


*  Qi/ere.  Whether  potatoes,  or  carrots,  steamed,  or  boiled,  as  onr. 
of  the  ingredients,  will  not  be  found  to  be  an  improvement ;  and 
whether  flax-seed  mixed  in  this  way,  with  boiled  corn,  carrots,  c ' 
potatoes,  will  not  improve  the  fattening  of  pork  ho??. 


118  THE  farmer's  manual. 

Whatever  multiplies  feed  for  your  stock,  enlarges 
the  quantity  of  your  hay,  and  enables  you  to  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  your  stock.  Whatever  will 
enable  you  to  increase  the  quantity  of  your  stock, 
increases  the  value  of  your  property  directly,  and 
the  subsequent  value  of  your  farm  indirectly,  by  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  your  manure,  and  thereby 
the  quantity  and  value  of  your  crops ;  thus  you  see 
that  your  potatoe  fallows,  which  do  not  exhaust  your 
soil,  may  be  made  the  source  of  great  improvement 
and  wealth  to  the  farmer^'. 

Your  sheep  should  be  fed  daily  upon  potatoes  ;  no 
article  of  stock  will  repay  you  with  greater  profit; 
the  quantity  of  their  wool  will  be  greater,  and  qua- 
lity hner ;  they  will  be  free  from  ticks,  unless  kept  in 
too  warm  a  covering,  and  too  many  in  a  fold  ;  they 
will  never  shed  their  wool,  and  seldom  lose  their 
lambs,  when  fed  daily  upon  potatoes.  The  saving 
of  hay  will  be  as  great  as  with  your^thcr  stock  in 
the  same  ratio.  The  rage  of  our  country  has  been 
great  for  the  merino  breed  of  sheep;  this  has  now 
subsided,  and  the  farmers  generally  calculate  to  keep 
a  due  proportion  of  the  English  and  merino  breeds, 
to  suit  the  mutton  and  wool  markets.  Experience 
can  only  be  the  true  guide  upon  this  subject. 

Your  affairs  are  now  all  snug,  and  well  arranged ; 
let  your  accounts  claim  your  particular  attention. 
They  should  all  be  posted  by  the  first  of  this  month, 
and  all  balanced  and  closed,  before  the  month  is  out  5 
the  saving  you  will  make  in  yearly  reckonings  with 
your  merchants,  mechanics,  labourers,  <Sz:c.  will  rich- 
ly repay  your  attention.  Perhaps  there  is  no  one 
thing  in  which  farmers  generally  are  more  slack,  than 
in  their  accounts,  and  it  is  of  importance  that  it 
should  be  corrected. 

*  From  the  best  calculations  made  by  the  best  feeders,  carrots  and 
potatoes,  i.re  found  to  be  worth  2*.  per  bushel  boiled  and  g:iven  to 
hogs,  or  given  raw  to  beef  cattle,  or  \s,  when  given  to  hogs,  rav 
or  unboiled* 


THE    FARxMEr's    MANUAL.  119 

Imnrove  the  first  turn  of  good  sledding  to  draw 
liome  your  wood  and  fencing  stuff,  for  the  next  season  ; 
the  winters  are  so  precarious,  you  may  not  have  an- 
other. It  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  you  pro- 
vide in  winter  for  the  next  season,  as  well  as  to  pro- 
vide in  summer  for  the  next  winter.  Think  of  ease, 
but  work  on ;  the  rich  improvements  before  you, 
should  be  your  ample  reward,  together  with  the  flour- 
ishing state  of  your  families.  The  example  of  every 
thriving  merchant,  or  mechanic,  is  before  you ;  if 
they  did  not  lay  in  their  stock  in  due  season,  they 
would  soon  run  out,  and  so  will  you. 

Look  often  to  your  water-courses ;  see  that  the 
wash  is  properly  directed,  by  not  flowing  too  long, 
or  too  much,  in  one  place,  to  the  damage  of  your  field, 
and  see  that  your  banks  and  dams  are  not  broken, 
and  washed  away  ;  this  is  both  a  cheap  and  rich  ma- 
nure, and  such  as  no  prudent  farmer  will  neglect. 
The  wash  of  the  roads  may  be  turned  on  to  your 
sloping  grounds,  with  very  little  expense  and  trouble, 
and  afford  you  a  handsome  profit. 

Two  most  important  things  now  claim  your  atten- 
tion ;  the  first  is,  see  that  your  children  are  not  only 
steady  at  school,  and  well  supplied  with  useful,  and 
valuable  school  books  ;  but  improve  every  possible 
opportunity  to  improve  your  own  minds  by  reading 
history,  geography,  biography,  and  the  sciences  ge- 
nerally. 

Converse  with,  and  examine  your  children  often 
upon  their  studies  at  school  5  you  will  not  only  dis- 
cover the  state  of  their*mprovements,  but  you  can 
do  more  than  the  master,  by  encouraging  and  excit- 
ing their  ambition.  One  hour's  instruction  by  con- 
versation, is  worth  two  by  reading,  upon  the  same 
subject. 

In  vain  you  toil  to  become  rich,  if  your  children 
are  not  educated  properly,  to  take  good  care  of  it  af- 
ter you  are  dead.  In  our  children  we  live  again  after 
we  arc  dead,  and  all  the  good  there  is  in  acquiring 
more  wealth  than  is  necessary  for  our  support,  is  to 


120  THE  FARMER^S  MANUAto 

enable  us  to  educate  them  in  such  a  manner,  as  to 
give  to  them  the  means  of  improving  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, the  surplusage  of  our  earnings,  and  thus 
continue  the  family  name  with  respectability,  to  the 
latest  generation. 

No  man  was  ever  too  old  to  learn  ;  and  a  correct 
expansion  of  the  mind,  and  information  of  the  un- 
derstanding, is  more  precious  to  the  owner,  than  sil- 
ver, and  renders  him  more  valuable  to  the  communi- 
ty, than  gold. 


FEBRUARY. 

Your  stock  are  now  snug  and  warmly  housed  ;  your 
beef  cattle,  cows,  sheep  and  working  cattle,  are  re- 
gularly fed  with  potatoes,  or  carrots  ;  your  clover  is 
at  proper  times  regularly  apportioned  in  your  racks, 
with  straw,  that  your  stock,  by  passing  from  rack  to 
rack,  may  feed  on  clover  and  straw  alternately,  as 
they  choose.  Your  threshing  is  now  progressing  as 
fast  as  possible,  and  every  possible  opportunity  im- 
proved to  finish  your  sledding  for  the  next  season. 
Your  hemp  and  flax,  are  also  the  objects  of  your 
particular  care  ;  get  them  forward  as  fast  as  possible  ; 
the  market,  and  the  spinning-wheel,  will  now  begin 
to  urge  the  work.  Every  cent  you  save  in  domestic 
manufactures,  is  three  cents  gained ;  first,  from  its 
extra  durability,  antl  next,^rom  the  saving  of  yoyr 
money,  and  above  all,  the  promotion  of  domestic  in- 
dustry. One  |)iece  of  handsome  domestic  manu- 
facture, will  go  further  to  raise  the  reputation  of 
the  young  ladies,  than  the  most  expensive  foreign 
dress,  if  you  have  stored  more  turnips  than  are  suf- 
ficient for  the  use  of  the  table,  give  them  to  any 
stock  that  will  eat  them,  except  your  sheep;  give 
to  them  potatoes,  but  not  turnips,  at  this  season; 
they  will  injure  thf»ir  lambs.  It  will  be  needless  to 
give  any  directions  for  the  preservation,  and  manage- 


THE  TARMEr's  manual.  121 

went  of  weak  and  feeble  lambs ;  the  best  nursing  for 
such  lambs  is,  by  keeping  the  ewes  well,  either  upon 
your  best  English  hay,  particularly  rowen,  with 
potatoes,  carrots,  or  white  beans ;  these  will  ensure 
you  strong  lambs,  with  a  plenty  of  milk,  and  save 
all  the  trouble  of  nursing.  Should  any  one  be  so 
unfortunate  as  to  want  the  proper  means  of  ensuring 
strong  lambs,  as  above,  or  neglect  a  proper  use  of 
such  as  he  may  have,  (for  even  barley,  oats  and  corn, 
will  answer  as  substitutes  for  the  potatoes,  carrots, 
or  white  beans,  if  given  in  small  quantities,  so  as 
not  to  excite  fever,  and  thereby  cause  ticks,  and  the 
shedding  of  the  wool,)  let  him  remember  that  such 
weak  lambs  should  be  treated,  in  all  respects,  as  if 
they  had  been  drowned,  and'you  would  restore  them 
to  life.  Apply  gentle  and  regular  warmth  ;  give  warm 
milk,  frequently,  in  small  quantities,  (the  milk  of  the 
sheep  is  best,)  and  .if  the  ewe  has  milk  sufficient  for 
its  support,  you  may  generally  raise  them  ;  but  if 
not,  they  generally  die.  It  is  more  work  to  nurse 
one  such  lamb  for  24  hours,  than  to  feed  regularly 
100  sheep  for  the  same  time  ;  take  your  choice. 

Your  breeding  sows  are  now  about  to  bring  your 
pigs  for  the  next  season  ;  keep  them  well,  and  in 
good  flesh,  but  not  fat,  and  salt  them  often  to  prevent 
their  eating  their  own  pigs,  which  often  happens  if 
they  are  too  fat,  and  you  neglect  to  give  them  salt. 
Now  is  the  time  to  lay  a  proper  foundation  for  your 
pork  harvest,  and  in  order  to  show  you  the  value  of 
this  part  of  good  farming,  l  will  at  this  time  lay  be- 
fore you  sundry  extracts  upon  this  important  subject. 

Extract  from  the  Boston  Centinel,  March,  1819. 

"  All  Europe  boasts  of  Leaden-Hall*  ; 
But  Yankee  products  beats  them  ali." 

*'  Dai/  of  fat  things. — Of  the  numerous  improve- 
ments of  which  our  country  can  boast,  thqit  made  in 

*  Noted  flosh-market  in  London. 

n 


12^2  THE  farmer's  maxual. 

rearing  hogs,  is  perhaps  the  most  extraordinary ;  and 
ought  to  confer  on  the  individuals  who  have  been  in- 
strumental in  introducing  and  promoting,  in  our  coun- 
try, breeds  so  capable  of  improvement,  the  proud 
title  of  Public  Benefactors.  This  remark  occurred 
on  learning,  that,  during  the  last  week,  one  of  our 
merchant  victuallers  purchased  no  less  than  sixty  thou- 
sand weight  of  pork,  principally  raised  in  New-Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont.  We  saw  about  thirty  of  the 
hogs  which  composed  the  purchase^^  and  which,  for 
whiteness  of  flesh,  smallness  of  bones,  thinness  of 
skin  and  ears,  and  plumpness  of  body,  could  not  be 
exceeded.  Some  of  them,  we  learn,  before  they  were 
slaughtered,  could  scarcely  see,  were  unable  to  rise 
upon  their  hind  legs,  and  were  fed  in  a  recumbent 
posture.  We  were  told  by  the  drovers,  that  a  farm- 
er, in  one  of  the  upper  towns  in  New-Hampshire,  had 
in  his  pen  twenty  pigs,  which,  when  slaughtered,  are 
supposed  to  weigh  eight  thousand  weight ;  and  that 
one  of  his  neighbours  has  twelve  others,  which  are 
supposed  to  weigh  six  thousand  weight." 

From  the   last  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository 
and  JournaL 

''  One  of  the  most  successful  experiments  in  Agri- 
culture that  we  have  ever  known,  is  that  of  the  Alms- 
house  Farm,  in  Salem,  which  is  under  the  caie  of  Mr. 
Paul  Upton. 

"  This  farm  consists  of  about  35  acres,  (as  we  arc 
informed,)  and  was,  two  years  since,  in  a  state  of  na- 
ture, and  very  rough  land.  It  has  been  brought  too, 
and  the  produce  during  the  year  1818,  was  as  fol- 
lows, viz.  pork  killed,  weighed  seven  thousand  nine 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  Twelve  live  pigs,  sold 
for  thirty-two  dollars.  On  hand,  fifty-seven  pigs. 
Corn,  four  hundred  bushels.  Potatoes,  two  thousand 
two  hundred  and  fifty  bushels.  Turnips,  nine  hun- 
dred bushels.     Three  tons  of  squashes.     Fifty  ton- 


THE  faumer's  manual.  1^23 

of  pumpkins,  together  with  all  the  common  summer 
vegetables  for  the  Alms-house. 

''  We  doubt  whether  any  farm  in  the  United  States, 
has  produced  more,  in  proportion  to  its  size  ;  and  il 
is  a  proof  what  well  directed  industry  can  effect.^' 

South' Berzi3ick  Mammoth  Hog. 

"  February  17,  1819. — Mr  David  Nichols,  a  worthy 
member  of  the  Society  of  friends,  has  this  day  killed 
a  hog  aged  21  months,  13  days,  half  blooded,  of  the 
Newbury  whites  ;  his  girth  6  feet  5  inches  ;  unusually 
short  in  proportion  to  bis  size ;  weighing  with  the 
rough  fat  670lbs.  precisely ;  having  gained  at  least 
lib.  per  day  since  he  was  littered;  he  was  sold  for 
12  1-2  cents  per  pound."  Kennebunk  Paper. 

Poiighkeepsie^  Dec.  16,  1818. 

*'  We  learn  that  five  hundred  and  twenty-five  wag- 
gon loads  of  pork  were  brought  to  this  village  on  Sa- 
turday last,  which  will  probably  give  our  farmers 
$15000.'' 


Mammoth  Ho 


s- 


''  A  hog  was  lately  killed  by  Capt.  Joel  Lull,  of 
Windsor,  Vermont,  which  weighed  582lbs.  ;  only  19 
months  old." 

Instances  of  the  improvements  of  our  country  in 
Agriculture,  might  be  thus  extended  to  a  very  great 
length  ;  but  these  would  only  swell  the  expense  oi 
this  work  uiynecessarily.  The  above  are  sufficient  to 
show  what  has  been  done,  and  what  may  be  done 
agam,  by  every  farmer  who  is  in  earnest  about  hi> 
iarm,  and  will  learn  how  to  work  it  right. 

You  see  that  upon  the  Salem  farm  were  raised 
about  eight  thousand  weight  of  pork  ;  besides  live  hoffs 
marketted,  and  fifty-seven  reserved  for  stock  the  nex^ 


I '24  THE  farmer's  manual, 

season  ;  also,  400  bushels  of  corn.  You  also  see,  at 
the  same  time,  more  than  two  thousand  bushels  of 
potatoes.  These,  when  boiled,  produced  the  pork  ; 
this  again,  produced  the  manure,  which  in  its  turn, 
will  produce  corn  again,  and,  at  the  same  time,  raise 
the  productive  v^lue  of  the  land;  and  thus  you  see 
how  my  former  remarks  (under  the  articles,  Majiure 
and  Stock)  are  verified.  The  size  of  this  farm,  also, 
shows  how  great  wealth,  with  a  little  expense,  can 
be  drawn  from  a  small  farm,  with  proper  manage- 
me!it.  The  profits  and  the  reputation,  are  worthy 
of  the  first  attention. 

Cut  your  cions  for  grafting,  from  such  fruit  as  you 
wish  to  propagate ;  be  sure  to  select  from  the  ends 
of  the  most  thrifty,  and  best  bearing  limbs,  upon  the 
most  thrifty,  and  best  bearing  trees,  and  of  the  last 
year's  growth  only,  excepting  so  much  of  the  growth 
of  the  preceding  year,  as  may  be  sufficient  to  fix  in 
the  earth  to  preserve  them  moist ;  let  this  be  done  by 
tying  in  separate  bunches,  the  several  kinds,  with 
labels,  and  fix  the  bunches  in  the  ground,  in  some 
dry  part  of  your  cellar,  where  they  will  stand  secure 
until  wanted  for  use. 

If  the  weather  is  warm  at  the  close  of  this  month, 
commence  the  pruning  of  your  orchards  and  fruit- 
trees,  generally.  Cut  ofl'all  the  old  dead  limbs  from 
your  old  trees ;  but  preserve  the  young  shoots ; 
ihey  will  come  forward  and  bear,  when  the  standing 
parts  of  your  trees  are  dead.  When  you  trim  your 
young  trees,  cut  oft'  such  limbs  as  incline  to  droop, 
are  defective,  or  intersect  each  other;  a  little  atten- 
tion in  pruning  your  fruit-trees,  will  carry  them  up  in 
a  handsome,  regular  shape,  and  both  improve  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  your  fruit  and  your  tillage  un- 
derneath. To  effect  these  two  objects,  it  will  be- 
come an  object  of  your  attention  to  accompany  your 
trimmer,  and  both  watch  and  direct  his  trimming;  a 
person  on  the  ground  can  generally  judge  better  than 
one  upon  the  tre^.  I  need  not  repeat,  that  your  orchard 


I'HE  farmer's  manual.  1^5 

are  objects  of  prime  importance  upon  your  farms,  not 
only  for  the  revenue  which  they  afford,  but  for  the  ex- 
pense of  rum,  and  other  liquors,  which  your  good  ci- 
der will  save,  ai!d  for  the  saving,  more  especially,  in 
your  time   and  doctor's  bills,   in  using  cider  in  the 
place  of  rum,  or  other  ardent  spirits.     I  am  sensible 
that  all  arguments  against  the  use  of  rum  and  tobac- 
co, are  lost  upon  those  who  have  long  been  accustom- 
ed to  their  use  ;  but  I  hope  to  be  believed,  by  those 
whose  habits  are  not  irrevocably  fixed,  when  I  say,, 
that   I   have  in  the  course  of  my  life  used  both  rum 
and  tobacco,  and  for  many  years  have  disused  both, 
with  a  full  conviction,   that  my  health  is  better,  and 
my  strength  more  permanent  and  durable   when  I  la- 
bour, than  when   1   used  either — mark  the  difference 
of  expense — yes,    of  useless   expense — an   expense 
that  would  pay  the  taxes  and  clothe  the  families  of 
many  farmers,  and  how  much  more,  I  dare  not  say--- 
let  such  farmers  calculate,  and  see  for  themselves,  it 
they   dare  look  the   evil  in  the  face.     All  this,   and 
more  too,  your  orchards  will  remedy,  with  one  bar- 
rel or  two  of  good  malt,  or  hop  beer,  for  the  warmest  of 
the  weather.     Try  this  mode  as  1  do,  and  if  you  find  me 
in  an  error,  correct  my  error,  and  I  will  yield  to  your 
better  judgment.     But  if  you  are  satisfied  with  the 
improvement,   let  this   waste  of  money,   v/hich  costs 
you  so  much  toil  and  sweat,  be  placed  at  such  inter- 
est as  shall  ensure  a  quiet  life,  a  tranquil  old  age,  and 
a  happy  and  peaceful  death.     Neither  of  these  were 
ever  obtained  by  rum  and  tobacco,  nor  ever  will  be. 

For  remarks  on  your  other  fruits,  see  Gardening. 

Here  let  me  repeat  again  the  remarks  I  made  in 
January,  upon  education.  The  news-papers  are  the 
great  vehicles  of  general  information  ;  they  give  us 
a  general  knowledge  of  men,  their  political  connec- 
tions and  movements  ;  their  commercial  relations, 
agricultural  improvements,  &c.  To  understand  pro- 
perly this  important  source  of  information,  a  genera! 
knowledge  of  Geographv  is   absolutely   necessary* 

11  * 


^26  THE    farmer's    manual. 

This  may  now  be  easily  acquired  by  the  assistance 
of  the  small  school  Geographies,  with  their  Atlasses, 
which  cost  about  75  cents  ;  and  tb^s  your  winter 
evenings  may  be  converted  to  the  pleasure  and  im- 
portance of  acquiring  the  valuable  science  of  Geogra- 
phy, so  that  when  you  read  in  your  news-papers  the 
events,  occurrences  and  transactions  of  foreign  na- 
tions, you  may,  by  the  assistance  of  these  school 
maps,  bring  those  countries  before  you,  and  thus 
render  them  as  familiar  to  your  minds  as  the  towns, 
or  societies,  in  which  you  live.  In  this  way,  this 
news-paper  foreign  intelligence  will  be  both  interesting 
and  useful.  In  this  way,  the  general  instruction  of 
your  families  will  be  greatly  improved,  and  a  free  and 
pleasant  social  intercourse  heighten  the  enjoyments 
ot  a  winter's  fire-side.  The  study  of  Astronomy  and 
Natural  Philosophy,  should  also  make  up  a  part  of 
these  useful  and  social  enjoyments.  Philip's  Lec- 
tures on  Astronomy,  and  Blair's  Grammar  of  Philoso- 
phy, are  cheap  and  valuable  books  adapted  to  the 
:apacities  of  children  as  well  as  men,  and  will  im- 
part all  the  knowledge  upon  these  important  subjects, 
iseful  or  necessary  in  common  life.  This  system  of 
instruction  your  children  cannot  obtain  in  your  com- 
mon schools  ;  but  with  your  encouragement  and  as- 
sistance, they  may  become  ambitious  to  obtain  it,  and 
by  a  proper  spirit  of  emulation,  they  may  be  made  to 
excel  in  these  sciences  ;  this  will  not  only  render 
them  familiar  to  your  own  minds,  and  thus  become 
a  source  of  enjoyment  to  you,  but  they  will  aflbrd 
you  the  lasting  satisfaction  of  witnessing  the  improve- 
ments of  your  families.  In  this  way,  a  laudable  emu- 
lation amongst  children  of  the  same  family,  and  of  the 
same  neighbourhoods,  may  be  excited,  and  thus  the 
most  valuable  improvements  of  the  mind  become  the 
medium  of  the  most  social  and  familiar  intercourse. 
It  must  be  understood,  that  the  farmers  of  all  coun- 
tries are  the  pillars  of  the  State,  and  that  the  wealth, 
sup{x»rt  and  well-being  of  all  communities,  depend  on 


THE    farmer's    manual*  1^7 

them*  It  must  also  be  remembered,  that  virtue,  indus- 
try, economy,  and  a  well  informed  mind,  constitute  the 
basis  of  their  wealth,  strength,  or  influence,  and  re- 
spectability ;  and  that  the  waiit  of  any  one,  or  all  of 
these  virtues,  will  subject  them  to  the  cunning,  in- 
trigue, arts  and  duplicity  of  such  ambitious  specula- 
tors of  the  community,  as  are  more  knowing  ;  such 
as  infest  all  communities,  and  feed  on  the  labours, 
and  depend  on  the  virtues  of  others,  to  maintain  and 
support  the  interest  and  tranquility  of  a  State,  which 
their  own  pride,  indolence  and  vices  would  otherwise 
#i|  and  destroy. 
ilRarmers,  let  me  repeat  again,  you  are  the  lords  of 
the  soil  and  the  pillars  of  the  State,  spare  no  pains 
to  give  to  your  minds  that  expansion,  which  alone  can 
be  derived  from  an  enlarged  education,  that  you  may 
become  the  guardians  of  the  State  ;  that  the  liberties 
of  your  fathers  may  be  preserved  inviolable,  and 
transmitted  down  to  your  children  to  the  latest  ge- 
neration. 

In  the  course  of  the  successive  months,  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  place  before  the  farmer  the  most  valua- 
ble and  useful  crops,  with  the  best  practical  modes  of 
improving  those  crops,  with  a  general  reference  to 
their  use  at  this  season  of  the  year,  both  in  feeding 
and  improving  stock. 

It  has  now  become  your  care  to  convert  to  the  best 
use  and  profit,  every  article  that  will  promote  the 
growth,  and  better  the  condition  of  your  horses,  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  cows.  Give  out  all  such  coarse  fod- 
der as  you  design  for  feeding,  before  this  month  is 
out;  when  the  sprmg  opens,  it  will  become  useless 
excepting  for  litter,  and  to  this  use,  all  should  be  ap- 
plied, that  can  possibly  be  spared.  Every  load  of 
manure  you  can  possibly  make,  becomes  better  to 
you  than  so  much  value  of  cash  in  the  bank ;  because 
the  next  crops  will  pay  you  a  much  greater  interest, 
and  the  increased  value  of  your  lands,  by  the  means 
of  this  manure,  will  render  this  better  than  compovuid 
interest.     Here  let  me  repec^t  again,  apply  every  dry 


128  THk  farmer's  manual- 

substance  you  can  collect  and  spare  for  litter  foi 
your  stock,  it  will  not  only  keep  them  warm  and  thus 
save  hay,  but  be  the  means  of  giving  life  and  vi- 
gour to  all  parts  of  your  husbandry,  by  the  manure  il 
will  make. 

The  long  winters  of  New-England  are  generally 
considered  as  being  a  great  damage  and  expense  to 
the  farming  interest,  generally ;  this  is  true  to  all  such 
as  choose  to  make  them  so  ;  but  directly  the  reverse 
to  all  such  as  consult  their  true  interest.  Our  nor- 
thern winters  are  not  longer  than  are  best  for  the 
improvement  of  the  mind,  education  of  our  childi^, 
cultivation  and  improvement  of  our  stock,  threslp^ 
out  our  grain,  dressing  our  hemp  and  flax,  making  and 
collecting  manures,  the  provision  of  fencing  stuff,  fuel, 
&c.  together  with  the  promotion  and  enjoyment  of  that 
social  intercourse,  which  is  the  life  of  society,  the  en- 
livener  and  polisher  of  manners,  and  the  basis  of  the 
good  order  and  best  interest  of  the  community.  Now 
is  our  time  to  combine  all  these  advantages,  and  reap 
the  benefit  of  them. 

Let  the  merchant  and  the  artist  boast  of  their 
nice  calculations,  their  stocks  in  business  well  laid 
in,  and  contemplate  their  profits,  amounting  to  vast 
stores  of  wealth,  in  expectancy  ;  the  success  of  all 
their  schemes,  and  even  their  own  personal  support, 
depend  on  the  farmer. 

As  well  might  the  Apiarian  construct  his  splendid 
hives,  and  stock  them  well  with  bees  ;  if  the  fields 
yielded  no  blossoms  for  their  support,  his  stock 
would  all  perish  ;  his  fine  calculations  would  all  fail, 
and  his  vain  expectations  end  in  disappointment. 
Just  so  the  calculations  of  the  merchant,  the  ar- 
tist, and  even  the  government,  and  the  nation  itself 
would  fail,  without  the  labours  of  the  husbandman, 
and  the  blessing  of  God,  to  crown  those  labours  with 
success.  • 

These  are  the  plain  practical  truths  of  common 
sense,  and  common  experience;  Irt  me  call  on  every 
description  of  character  in  the  community,  and  say, 


129 

thou  art  fed  and  clothed,  and  warmed  from  the  field — 
venerate  the  plough. 

Farmers,  I  have  before  remarked,  ye  are  the  lords 
of  this  lower  creation,  and  I  have  shown  you  this  by 
clear  demonstration  ;  reverence  yourselves,  by  your 
industry,  economy,  temperance,  sobriety  and  punc- 
tuality, with  all  the  christian  virtues,  and  you  will 
compel  the  world  to  reverence  you.  Should  any  one 
order,  rank,  station,  or  individual  in  society,  withhold 
from  you  the  tribute  of  respect,  justly  due  to  your 
rank,  and  worth  in  society,  let  him  alone  ;  reflection 
will  correct  his  error.  Let  no  advantages  of  im- 
proving your  knowledge  in  the  science  of  husbandry, 
escape  your  attention ;  apply  this  improvement  in 
knowledge,  to  the  improvement  of  your  farms,  by  lit- 
tle and  little,  as  circumstances,  and  your  means  may 
afford  you  opportunity;  a  well  directed  industry, 
with  the  blessing  of  God,  will  enable  you  to  sur- 
mount all  difficulties,  and  will  make  you  both  rich 
and  independent,  and  your  families  after  you.  Re- 
member the  Salem  Alms-house  Farm  ;  the  example  is 
before  you,  go  and  do  likewise,  and  become  the  Paul 
Uptons  of  your  country.  Under  such  husbandry, 
the  merchant  will  flourish ;  the  artist,  and  the  labour- 
er will  flourish  ;  the  agriculture  and  commerce  of  our 
country  (those  handmaids  of  nations)  will  flourish  ; 
our  country  will  become  the  garden  of  the  world,  and 
America  the  store-house  of  the  world.  Enjoying,  as 
we  do  in  America,  the  advantages  of  every  clime, 
which  constitute  the  delight  of  the  temperate  zone; 
blest,  as  we  are,  with  a  variety,  and  fertility  of  soil, 
unrivalled  in  the  geography  of  Nations  ;  together  with 
the  privileges  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  unparal- 
lelled  in  the  history  of  nations  ;  let  us  remember 
that  the  eyes  of  God,  and  of  the  world  are  upon  us  ; 
in  proportion  to  the  distinguished  magnitude  of  our 
privileges,  so  let  us  fill  up  our  duties  to  ourselves, 
to  the  world,  and  to  our  God. 

Let  us  keep  free  from  debt,  and  once  more  I  say, 
wo  are  of  all  men  the  most  happy  and  independent. 


ON 


GARDENING- 


MARCH. 

In  i^ew-England,  we  are  excluded,  generally,  from 
our  gardens,  by  the  frosts  of  winter,  from  the  middle 
of  December,  to  the  middle  of  March,  and  often 
from  the  first  of  December,  to  the  first  of  April. 

Whenever  the  frost  subsides,  we  begin  to  prepare 
our  hot-beds,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  vegetation, 
and  in  the  following  manner. 

Hot-Beds. 

Mark  out  your  bed,  to  the  size  of  the  frame  you 
design  to  cover  it,  which  is  generally  six  feet  in 
length,  and  three  in  breadth,  covered  with  glass  set 
in  sashes  of  12  panes  each,  of  7  by  9  glass.  These 
sashes  are  hung  with  hinges  upon  the  back  side,  to 
admit  of  their  being  raised  up,  and  let  down  in  front, 
at  pleasure.  The  front  side  of  the  sashes  to  incline 
from  the  bark  side  about  six  inches.  The  frame,  or 
box,  is  tight  upon  all  four  of  its  sides,  and  generally, 
about  12  inches  high  in  front,  and  18  inches  on  the 
back  side. 

Dig  your  bed  thus  marked  oft',  and  cover  it  witjj 
litter  from  your  horse-stable  ;  stamp  down  your  seve- 
ral layers,  until  your  bed  is  raised  to  the  height  yon 
wish,  then  cover  the  bed  with  a  layer  of  rich  earth, 
from  6  to  12  inches  thick,  and  set  on  your  frame  ;  in 
8  or  10  days,  it  will  generally  be  ready  for  plantins^ 


T^E  Parmer's  manual,  131 

if  the  weather  is  mild.  Ff  the  fermentation  is  too 
powerful,  and  the  heat  too  active,  give  it  air  by  rais- 
ing the  lights  in  your  frame,  until  you  have  obtained 
a  rigtit  tempen\(ture  ;  (which  you  may  determine  by 
placing  your  hand  upon  the  bed,  or  even  thrusting 
your  hand  into  it.)  You  may  then  plant  your  early 
cucumbers,  radishes,  sallads,  &c. ;  these  plants  will 
soon  come  forward,  and  may  be  transplanted  on  to 
other  hot -beds,  not  so  powerful,  or  promiscuously, 
into  the  gardei,  and  covered  with  other  small  frames, 
#f  1,  2,  or  4  panes  of  glass  according  to  circum- 
stances, and  the  remainder  may  stand  for  use. 
These  plants  may  be  brought  to  perfection,  general- 
ly, about  one  month  earlier  than  in  open  ground, 

As|)aragus  may  be  forced  in  hot-beds  to  advan- 
tage, in  the  following  manner.  Draw,  or  dig  from 
your  asparagus- bed,  as  many  roots  as  will  fill  your 
hot-beds,  and  set  them  in  rows  that  will  admit  the 
hoe  between,  and  from  one  to  three  inches  asunder 
in  the  rows,  (roots  of  four  years  old,  and  that  have 
never  been  cut,  answer  best ;)  cover  with  your  frame, 
and  when  you  pick  for  use,  cut  within  the  ground. 

Peas. 

Prepare  your  pea-ground  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out, 
by  digging  and  raking,  until  it  is  completely  pulver- 
ized ;  if  your  soil  is  weak,  manure  with  live  or 
leached  ashes,  or  chip-dung,  and  rake  it  in  ;  then 
plant  your  early  hotspurs  in  double  rows,  4  or  5,  or 
even  6  inches  asunder,  and  set  your  peas  by  hand, 
about  half  an  inch  distance  in  the  rows  ;  cover  light- 
ly, and  press  down  the  surface  of  the  earth  upon  the 
rows  with  the  hoe.  Hie  them  gently  as  soon  as  they 
come  up,  and  when  you  set  your  brush  for  support- 
ers, set  one  row  in  the  centre  between  the  double 
rows.  Be  sure  to  select  for  this  crop  the  driest  and 
ivarmest  soil  in  your  garden,  particularly,  such  as  is 
secured  from  the  north  winds,  by  a  tight  fence,  or 
a  wall. 


132  THE  farmer's  manual. 

When  your  hotspurs  are  up,  plant,  in  the  same 
way.  early  turners,  nonpariels  and  marrowfats,  &c. 
in  succession,  and  in  this  way>  you  may  continue 
your  peas  until  autumn. 

Cabbages. 

Select  from  your  cellar  the  best  of  your  cabbages 
with  heads,  and  set  in  some  secure  place,  to  stand 
for  seed ;  set  different  kinds  remote  from  each  other, 
to  prevent  their  mixing  their  seed  at  the  time  of  blos- 
soming. Set,  at  the  same  time,  your  best  cabba^- 
stumps  for  early  sallad  and  greens.  If  your  ground 
is  moist,  set  fleet ;  but  if  it  is  dry,  set  deep  ;  say  six 
inches  or  more. 


APRIL. 

Remove  the  covering  from  your  strawberries,  and 
hoe  them  lightly. 

When  your  early  planted  peas  are  all  up,  continue 
to  plant  marrowfats,  or  other  rich  peas,  and  go  on  to 
bush  your  early  peas  as  directed  before. 

Set  rareripe  onions ;  sow  late  onions ;  and  plant,  at 
the  same  time,  beets,  carrots  and  parsnips,  for  sum- 
mer's use ;  sow  sallads  and  radishes  with  your  on- 
ions, they  will  be  fit  for  use  when  your  hot-beds  arc 
done. 

Cover  your  asparagus-beds  with  rich  manure,  (if 
you  neglected  it  in  the  fall,)  dig  over  the  surface 
lightly,  and  rake  it  until  the  earth  is  mellow. 

Set  garlics,  plant  Scarcity,  or  Mangel  Wurtzel, 
sow  cabbages,  turnips,  radishes,  &;c.  Set  all  your 
seed  roots,  if  you  have  not  set  them  before  ;  such  as 
ruta  baga,  beets,  carrots,  turnips,  both  long  and 
flat.  Sow  sage,  thyme,  mint,  summersavery,  &:c. 
with  spinach,  parsely  and  celle.ry. 

Plant  English  white  potatoes,  on  a  rich  warm  soil. 


THE  PABMER^S  MANUAL*  139 

Asparagus, 

Select  the  driest  and  warmest  part  of  your  gar- 
den  for  your  asparagus- bed,  as  you  have  done  for 
your  early  peas ;  render  it  a  deep  rich  mould  by  fre- 
quent digging,  and  high  manuring ;  lay  it  off  into 
beds  of  four  feet  wide,  and  sow  your  asparagus- 
seed  as  you  have  done  your  onions  and  carrots,  in 
rows  of  about  10  inches  asunder.  When  the  plants 
come  forward,  hoc  and  weed  as  often  as  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  bring  forward  the  plants  free  from  weeds, 
through  the  first  season. 

In  April  of  the  next  season,  stir,  or  dig  the  ground 
lightly  upon  your  asparagus,  and  give  a  top  dressing 
with  rich  manure ;  continue  to  hoe,  and  keep  down 
the  weeds,  as  before.  At  autumn,  cover  your  bed 
with  long-dung,  or  litter,  from  your  horse-stable ;  and 
in  April,  rake  it  off,  and  dig  and  rake  as  before. 
When  the  plants  come  forward,  you  may  now  begin 
to  select  a  few  of  the  most  thrifty,  for  use ;  remem- 
ber always  to  cut  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Continue  this  process,  with  occasionally 
a  little  salt  strewed  over  your  beds  in  the  spring, 
and  you  may  enjoy  the  luxury  of  good  asparagus. 

You  may  now  set  a  bed  of  horseradish  in  the  same 
way,  if  you  have  not  done  it  in  March. 


MAY. 

Plant  bush-beans  and  pole-beans  of  various  kinds, 
upon  a  warm  soil,  and  manure  with  horse,  or  hog- 
dung;  (to  set  the  poles  first,  and  then  plant  the  beans 
round  the  pole,  is  generally  preferred ;)  be  sure  to 
plant  fleet.  Hoe  and  bush  such  peas  as  have  come 
forward ;  hoe  and  weed  your  onions,  rareripes,  gar- 
lics, sallads,  &c.  Plant  your  cucumbers  in  open 
ground,  upon  a  rich,   warm  soil,  and  manure  with 

12 


134  THE  farmer's   manval. 

horse,  hog,  or  chip-dung  in  the  hill.  Continue  to 
plant  late  peas.  Plant  early  corn,  such  as  the  small 
tucket,  sweet  corn,  Canada  corn,  and  great  tucket. 
Sow  cabbages,  cauliflowers  and  broccoli;  plant 
early  squashes,  musk-melons,  canteloupes  and  water- 
melons. Begin  to  cut  asparagus  for  use.  Continue 
to  sow  celery,  spinach,  parsely,  sage,  thyme,  and 
other  aromatics,  with  beets,  carrots,  &c.  Continue 
to  plant  potatoes  ;  plant  broom-corn,  holcus  bicolor, 
or  chocolate  broom,  and  close  your  seeding  before 
the  25th.  ' 

Culture  of  the  Carrot. 

Select  a  deep  rich  garden  mould  for  the  culture  of 
this  root ;  a  warm  sandy  loam  answers  best.  Pre- 
pare this  land  with  high  manuring,  by  the  richest 
and  best  rotted  manures,  and  deep  ploughing.  Let 
the  earth  be  nicely  pulverized  with  the  harrow,  and 
struck  out  into  beds  of  3  1-2,  or  4  feet  wide.  In 
striking  out  these  beds,  let  the  plough  pass  up  and 
down,  or  return  back,  in  the  same  furrow ;  this  will 
turn  the  earth  equally  up  to  each  bed.  When  the 
beds  are  thus  struck  out,  haul  in  the  loose  dirt  from 
the  furrows  on  to  the  beds,  either  with  a  hoe,  or  a 
rake,  and  let  it  meet  on  the  centre  of  each  bed  ;  this 
%vill  lay  the  beds  crowning ;  then  break  all  the  clods 
upon  the  beds  fine  with  the  back  of  the  hoe,  or  with 
a  wooden  clod-knocker,  made  for  the  purpose,  and 
finish  the  beds  by  pulverizing  as  fine,  and  as  deep 
as  possible  with  the  rake ;  (a  rake  with  sharp  iron 
teeth  is  preferred.)  When  the  beds  are  thus  pre- 
pared, mark  them  off  into  rows  10  inches  asunder, 
with  a  large  heavy  rake  made  for  the  purpose,  with 
3  or  4  teeth  placed  at  that  distance,  and  about  5  or 
6  inches  in  length,  well  sharpened  at  the  points. 

The  beds  are  now  ready  for  sowing  ;  prepare  your 
carrot-seed  by  rubbing  it  with  the  hands,  after  it  is 
shelled,  until  the  seeds  are  all  separated,  so  as  not 
to  stick  together ;  then  mix  them  with  plaster  of  Pa- 


THE  farmer's  manual.  135 

lis,  or  live  ashes,  or  both,  or  with  a  dry  loam,  and 
strew  your  seed  in  the  rows  so  as  to  have  ihcm  fall  at 
the  distance  of  3  or  4  inches  apart;  this  will  give 
them  room  to  grow  without  crowding,  so  as  to  obtain 
a  good  size.  If  ynu  mix  a  small  quantity  of  onion- 
seed  with  your  carrot-seed,  the  onions  will  come  for- 
ward first,  and  assist  in  finding  the  young  carrots  at 
the  first  weeding;  they  will  also  serve  for  early  fami- 
ly use  without  injury  to  the  carrots.  The  carrot 
must  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  free  from  weeds 
through  the  season ;  3,  4,  or  5  hoeings  and  weedings 
will  be  necessary,  and  in  October,  they  may  be  dug 
with  the  spide,  or  dung-fork :  500  bushels  to  the 
acre  is  a  good  crop,  and  I  have  known  2500  bushels 
to  be  raised  upon  an  acre,  or  in  that  ratio.  The  car- 
rot is  worth  2s.  when  given  raw  to  hogs,  cattle,  sheep 
and  cows,  or  2s6  when  boiled,  or  steamed,  and 
mixed  with  bran  ;  no  feed  makes  richer  pork,  beef, 
mutton,  or  butter  and  cheese,  than  the  carrot.  The 
same  culture  is  required  for  beets  and  parsnips. 

Mangel  Wurtzel,  or  Scarcity  Root. 

This  root  requires  the  same  culture  as  the  carrot, 
but  as  it  grows  much  larger,  it  is  necessary  to  place 
the  seeds  in  the  rows  at  the  distance  of  about  six 
inches,  and  when  the  roots  have  obtained  a  good  size 
in  July,  and  August,  you  may  begin  to  pluck  the  un- 
der leaves  as  feed  for  your  hogs  and  cows,  without 
injury  to  the  roots  ;  if  you  begin  to  pluck  upon  one 
side  of  your  patch,  say  one  rood,  you  may  have, 
from  the  time  as  above,  a  regular  succession  of  pluck- 
ing through  the  season ;  for  by  the  time  you  have 
gone  over  the  patch,  the  roots  first  plucked,  will  be 
ready  to  be  plucked  again,  and  so  on.  This  food  is 
very  nutritious,  and  may  become  a  profitable  saving 
of  your  corn.  The  value  of  the  roots  you  may  ex- 
perience in  your  winter's  feeding,  either  for  hogs, 
sheep,  cattle,  or  cows,  the  same  as  the  carrot,  or  they 
may  be  kept  over  until  spring,  as  you  choose.     Thi«^ 


136  THE  farmer's  manual. 

root  may  be  rendered  much  more  productive  than  the 
carrot,  and  its  summer's  croppings  give  it  a  prefer- 
ence to  that  root.  Onions  may  also  be  sown  with 
this  root  without  injury  to  the  crop. 


JUNE. 

You  may  plant  cucumbers  to  advantage  the  first 
of  this  month  ;  they  will  often  be  as  early  as  those 
planted  the  middle  of  May,  and  generally  bear  bet- 
ter.    Clip  off  the  runners  on  strawberries. 

Weeds  are  the  common  enemy  of  man ;  they  now 
begin  to  infest  your  garden.  Remember,  that  as  you 
till,  so  you  will  reap.  Hoe  and  weed  your  plants  as 
sbon  as  you  can  do  it  with  safety.  One  crop  is  suf- 
ficient for  one  piece  of  ground,  at  one  time,  and  if 
you  suffer  it  to  be  weeds  with  your  plants,  you  will 
have  only  weeds.  Nurse  your  plants  with  your  hoe 
frequently  ;  remove  the  dry  earth,  and  give  them 
fresh  earth,  especially  if  the  season  is  dry :  early 
in  the  morning  is  the  best  time,  both  for  your  own 
health,  and  the  health  of  your  plants.  Under  this 
management,  you  may  enjoy  the  luxuries  of  a  good 
garden,  without  impeding  the  labours  of  the  field,  or 
abridging  your  field  husbandry.  Continue  to  hoe 
and  weed  out  your  onions,  and  all  other  plants,  even 
if  possible,  before  the  weeds  appear ;  this  is  good 
economy,  both  in  time  and  labour,  as  well  as  profit 
to  your  plants.  Hoe  and  bush  your  late  peas  ;  plant 
more  potatoes  ;  sow  more  turnips  ;  continue  to  plant 
bush  and  pole-beans;  plant  gourds,  squashes  and 
melons,  of  all  kinds.  Continue  to  plant  cucumbers 
for  pickling.  Top  all  such  bush-beans  as  are  in 
blossom,  by  cutting  off  the  top  of  the;  vines  near  to 
the  blossom,  they  will  be  earlier,  and  bear  better. 
Watch  your  vines,  and  destroy  worms,  bugs,  &:c. 
by  ashes,  lime,  soot,  or  a  strong  solution  of  hen« 
dung.     Thin  out,  and  earth  up  all  your  plants  ;  re- 


tHE  farmer's  manual.  137 

member  that  frequent  hoeing,  is  both  rain  and  ma- 
nurie  to  your  plants,  especially  in  dry  weather,  if 
done  in  the  morning.  Cut  your  sage,  mint,  &c. 
when  they  begin  to  flower,  and  spread  to  dry  in  an 
airy  place.  Plant  out  your  cabbages,  cauliflowers, 
broccoli,  &c.  in  moist,  or  cloudy  weather,  but  not 
when  the  ground  is  wet  and  heavy.  Thin  out  your 
beets,  carrots  and  parsnips,  and  fill  up  such  rows  as 
may  be  vacant.  Transplant  your  ruta  baga  into 
long  rows  of  4  feet  asunder,  and  12  inches  'distance 
in  the  rows,  and  manure  the  rows  with  rich  manure, 
or  live  ashes,  or  plaster  of  Paris.  Continue  to  ga- 
ther herbs  when  in  full  bloom,  and  dry  as  before. 


JULY. 

You  may  continue  to  plant  the  white  potatoe,  until 
the  20th,  on  rich  ground.  Continue  to  sow  broccoli. 
Continue  your  transplanting,  particularly  your  cele- 
ry, and  in  the  following  manner.  Dig  your  trenches 
one  foot  wide,  and  one  foot  deep,  or  more,  if  on  a 
warm  soil,  and  of  any  length  you  may  choose;  lay 
the  earth  upon  both  sides  of  the  trench  ;  then  dig  up 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  5  or  6  inches  deep  with  a 
dung-fork,  and  manure,  at  the  same  time,  with  rich 
hog,  or  horse-dung,  or  compost.  Set  your  plants  in 
the  trenches  (in  the  centre)  about  5  or  6  inches  asun- 
der; earth  up  the  plants  as  they  continue  to  grow, 
from  both  sides  of  the  tops  of  the  trenches,  until 
they  are  even  with  the  surface  of  the  earth,  then 
continue  to  earth  up  your  plants  as  they  continue  to 
grow,  say  10,  15,  or  20  inches  above  the  surface,  un- 
til they  have  acquired  their  height ;  be  careful  not  to 
bury  the  plants,  at  any  time. 

Pull  rareripes,  garlics,  and  even  late  onions,  as  they 
come  forward  and  ripen  ;  house  them  in  dry  weather, 
and  bunch  such  as  you  choose  to  keep  for  use. 
12* 


^^S  THE    farmer's    manual* 

Continue  to  watch  your  vines,  and  destroy  worms, 
bugs,  &c.  Continue  to  nurse  your  plants  with  the 
hoe  in  the  morning  ;  this  must  not  be  omitted,  until 
the  frosts  and  snows  come.  Your  garden  should  be 
as  free  from  weeds  as  your  drawing  room.  Continue 
to  sow  ruta  baga,  turnips,  &c.  Continue  to  clip 
your  strawberries. 


AUGUST. 

Continue  to  transplant  late  cabbages,  broccoli, 
ruta  baga,  celery,  &:c.  Continue  to  gather  seeds 
as  they  ripen,  and  dry  them  carefully  ;  see  to  such 
seed-peas  as  were  not  gathered  last  month,  and  plant 
a  new  crop  for  tiutumn.  Continue  to  pull  late  on- 
ions. Continue  your  hoeing  in  the  morning  when 
the  dew  is  on.  Let  me  repeat  it,  this  is  the  best 
way  of  watering  and  manuring,  unless  it  becomes 
very  dry,  a  little  water  may  then  become  necessary, 
early  in  the  morning,  or  at  evening,  upon  a  dry  soil. 
Continue  to  earth  up  your  celery,  and  nurse  such 
potatoes  as  are  not  fit  to  dig.  Dig  such  as  are  ripe, 
or  hare  dead  vines.  Begin  to  sow  turnips  for  win- 
ter's use,  and  transplant  your  ruta  baga  on  to  your 
early  pea  and  potatoe  ground,  in  rows  4  feet  asunder, 
as  before  directed.  In  digging  your  ground,  leave 
an  open  trench  at  each  4  feet  distance ;  manure  in 
these  trenches  plentifully,  with  rich  manure  ;  cover 
it  with  earth,  and  set  your  roots  over  the  manure, 
when  the  earth  is  fresh  dug ;  keep  your  plants  clean 
with  the  hoe. 


SEPTEMBER. 

Continue  to  earth  up  your  celery  v"^  gather  your 
late  seeds,  and  dry  them   carefully  5  sow  onions  to 


THE  farmer's  manual.  13d 

Stand  over  the  winter ;  nurse  your  late  potatoes  ; 
weed  turnips;  hoe  and  weed  ruta  baga,  &c.  Finish 
digging  early  potatoes.  Finish  pulling  late  onions. 
Continue  to  clip  your  strawberries.  Continue  to 
gather  your  seeds  as  they  ripen. 


OCTOBER  AND  NOVEMBER. 

Gather  from  your  garden  all  winter  vegetables, 
before  the  hard  frosts  commence,  particularly  winter 
squashes ;  dry  and  house  them  carefully.  When  the 
frosts  commence,  let  not  a  weed,  nor  the  seed  of  a 
weed  have  a  place  in  your  garden.  Gather  your  ce- 
lery in  dry  weather,  and  pack  it  in  boxes  with  dry 
sand,  in  a  warm  cellar,  leaving  the  tops  and  leaves 
open  to  the  air.  Gather  ruta  baga,  beets,  car- 
rots, parsnips  and  turnips,  and  secure  them  in  a 
warm  dry  cellar.  If  you  pack  in  casks,  or  boxes, 
such  as  you  design  for  the  table,  they  will  richly  re- 
pay your  trouble  in  their  extra  relish  and  flavour, 
particularly  your  turnips,  which  may  thus  be  kept 
sweet  over  until  spring.  This  may  sometimes  be 
done,  by  covering  them  under  a  heap  of  potatoes, 
upon  the  ground.  Ruta  baga  will  not  become  ripe, 
and  obtain  its  best  relish,  until  February,  or  March ; 
it  will  then  supply  the  place  of  the  turnip,  and  hold 
its  relish  through  the  summer.  Transplant  strawber- 
ries on  to  rich  beds,  in  rows  of  10  inches  asunder, 
and  in  hills  10  inches  distance  in  the  rows,  and  cover 
the  beds  lightly  with  straw,  or  other  litter,  and  this 
with  horse-dung. 


DECEMBER. 

Continue  to  transplant  such  strawberries  as  you 
have  neglected  the  last  month  ;  this  must  be  repeated 


140  THE  farmer's  manual. 

again  the  third  year  to  root  out  the  grass.  If  you 
set  a  fresh  bed  every  year,  either  in  August,  or  in 
autumn,  you  may  always  have  this  fruit  in  high  per- 
fection. Plant  such  peach-stones  as  you  wish  to  pro- 
pagate, and  where  you  choose  to  have  the  trees  grow. 
Transplant  all  such  vines  and  trees  as  you  wish  to 
remove,  and  secure  them  with  stakes. 

Ploughing, 

If  you  have  been  accustomed  to  till  a  rich  garden 
mould  under  a  shallow  ploughing^  now  is  the  time  to 
begin  to  correct  the  error. 

Put  in  your  plough,  and  turnup  your  garden  to  the 
depth  of  8,  10,  or  12  inches,  and  give  the  dead  earth 
you  turn  up,  a  dressing  of  your  beet  manure,  well 
spread  and  mixed  with  the  earth  by  the  harrow.  In 
the  month  of  April,  turn  in  with  the  plough  this  manure 
to  the  same  depth  you  ploughed  in  autumn^  or  7ointer, 
and  no  deeper.  Your  rich  mould  will  again  appear 
upon  the  surface,  ready  for  tillage*.  Repeat  this  pro- 
cess again  at  autumn,  and  you  will,  in  a  few  years,  have 
a  deep  rich  mould,  equal  to  the  original  surface,  which 
will  give  you  nearly  double  your  former  crops,  espe- 
cially in  dry  seasons,  and  only  with  the  expense  of 
one  extra  ploughing  in  autumn.  If  your  soil  is  light, 
and  you  wish  to  push  it  into  a  state  for  high  cultiva- 
tion, you  may  dress  the  surface  (after  the  spring 
ploughing)  with  live,  or  leached  ashes,  or  plaster,  and 
harrow  the  ground  until  it  is  well  mixed  5  or  you  may 
spread  on  a  coat  of  rich  manure,  and  cover  it  lightly 
with  the  plough,  and  then  go  on  to  till  either  with  or 
without  your  top  dressing,  as  before.  This  process 
will  soon  make  poor  .land  rich. 


THE 


MANUAL.  141 


Fruit-Trees,  Fines,  and  Shrubbery. 


MARCH   AND    APRIL- 

Cut  and  set  all  such  fruit  as  you  wish  to  propagate 
by  the  slip ;  such  as  currants,  goosberries,  raspber- 
ries, Sic.  Plant  out  such  fruit-trees  as  you  wish  to 
remove,  together  with  your  grape-vines,  particularly 
such  as  you  have  propagated  from  your  standing 
vines.  Prune  your  currants,  goosberries,  raspber- 
ries, &c.  remove  all  dead  stalks,  and  support  your 
bushes  by  frames. 


MAY. 

Set  by  grafting  such  cions  as  you  may  have  collect- 
ed in  February  ;  choose  for  this  purpose  the  most  thrif- 
ty stocks,  if  you  expect  good  success  5  place  two 
cions  in  each  stock  ;  but  do  not  suffer  more  than  one 
to  grow  and  come  forward.  Bend  down  such 
branches  of  your  grape-vines  as  you  can  bring  to  the 
ground ;  open  a  small  trench  5  or  6  inches  in  length, 
place  in  it  your  vine,  (leaving  the  growing  end  open 
to  the  air,)  then  cover  over  the  Wne  with  rich  mould, 
and  cover  it  with  a  stone ;  this  will  both  steady  your 
vine  and  keep  it  moist.  In  this  position  it  will  take 
root  in  summer;  and  in  autumn,  or  winter,  it  may  be 
separated  from  the  standing  vine,  and  in  March,  or 
April  following,  be  removed  to  such  a  place  as  you 
may  choose.  This  is  the  surest  and  easiest  way  of 
propagating  the  grape. 


142  THE  farmer's  manual. 

JUNE  AND  JULY. 

Your  strawberries,  cherries,  &c.  now  begin  to  re- 
ward your  labours,  and  if  you  have  rightly  arranged 
your  Fruitery,  you  may  now  enjoy  a  rich  succession 
without  intermission,  until  the  frosts  commence ;  and 
with  a  little  attention  by  preserving,  you  may  enjoy 
it  round  the  year.  Go  on  to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  your 
labours ;  you  alone  have  the  best  right.  Let  the  hoe 
rank  amongst  the  delights  of  the  moroing;  nature's 
school  is  full  of  variety  that  never  cloys,  when  right- 
ly used,  and  richly  repays  for  all  our  care  and  toil. 
Gather  your  currants  and  goosberries,  and  make  up 
your  wine. 


AUGUST. 

Propagate  fruits  generally  by  inoculation  ;  choose 
a  cloudy  or  moist  time,  when  the  sap  in  your  stocks 
is  in  full  spring.  Stone-fruit  will  heal  over  best 
when  propagated  by  inoculation.  The  process  of 
grafting  and  moculating  are  both  so  simple  and  com- 
mon, that  it  must  be  unnecessary  to  describe  them 
here  ;  every  farmer's  boy  of  1 4  years  of  age  may  be 
capable  of  propagating  fruit  in  this  way,  with  ease  and 
safety.  Transplant  such  strawberries  as  have  be- 
come foul  with  grass,  and  give  them  a  rich  fresh  bed* 
as  directed  in  November,  (under  Gardening.) 


SEPTEMBER,    OCTOBER  AND    NOVEMBER, 

Continue  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  your  labour  ;  pears, 
plums,  nectarines,  apricots,  cherries  and    peachc?. 


'  THE  tarmer's  manual,  143 

with  raspberries,  strawberries,  currants  and  goosber- 
ries  ;  not  forgetting  the  choicest  apples  and  grapes 
in  the  richest  variety  and  profusion,  have  rewarded 
your  labours  from  early  in  June,  without  intermission, 
down  to  this  time,  and  your  grapes,  if  carefully  pack- 
ed in  clean  sand,  or  ^^aw-dust,  may  be  preserved  on  the 
cluster,  fresh,  round  the  year. 

Make  up  your  stock  of  grap€  wines  for  the  year, 
in  October ;  it  is  iess  expensive  (on  account  of  su- 
gar) thaA  the  currant,  and  far  superior. 


DECEMBER. 

Plant  out  your  vines,  strawberries  and  raspben^es, 
and  prune  such  as  stand,  and  give  your  garden  a  tho- 
rough preparation  for  the  next  season.  Prune  your 
stone-fruit  generally  this  month,  particularly  your 
vines.  Remove  from  your  vines  part  of  the  bearing 
wood  of  the  last  season,  and  all  straggling  shoots ; 
preserve  such  shoots  of  the  last  summer's  growth  as 
you  wish  to  have  stand  for  fruit  the  next  season  ;  from 
these  only  will  spring  the  bearing  shoots.  To  im- 
prove this  fruit  as  much  as  possible,  shorten  those 
shoots  of  the  last  summer's  growth,  down  to  about 
six  joints,  and  cut  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  fromi 
the  eye,  when  you  divide  the  shoot.  All  unthrifty 
branches  must  be  removed. 

Plant  out  of  your  nursery,  such  trees  as  you  wish 
to  have  stand  for  fruit,  and  plant  such  peach-stones 
as  you  wish  to  propagate,  and  where  you  would 
choose  to  have  the  trees  stand,  and  guard  them  by 
stakes.  Take  up  such  shoots  as  have  sprung  from 
your  quince-trees,  anJ  other  trees  and  vines,  and 
place  them  where  you  wish  them  to  grow.  Dress 
all  your  fruit-trees  and  vines  with  rich  compost,  or 


144  THE  farmer's  manyal. 

chip-dung;  but  avoid  all  long-dung,  this  will  hartour 
mice,  which  may  ruin  your  trees.  Let  your  exam- 
ple of  industry  and  enjoyment,  be  an  example  to  all 
others,  to  go  and  do  likewise. 


ON  BEES. 


The  native  instinct  of  the  Bee,  offers  to  the  use  of  maa 
one  of  the  first  and  greatest  examples  in  nature. 

1.  By  her  uniform  habits  of  industry  in  all  her  labours. 

2-  By  her  unrivalled  habits  of  economy. 

3.  By  her  wisdom  and  sagacity  in  constructing  her  cells, 
which  constitute  both  her  habitation  and  store-house. 

4.  By  the  peaceful  regularity  of  her  little  communities. 

5.  By  her  temperate  use  of  the  choicest  luxuries  of  nature. 
She  also  offers  to  man  n  rich  reward  for  all  the  care  and 

attention  he  may  bestow  in  cultivating  her  species,  and  in 
promoting  their  improvement. 

"  The  Bee  observe. 

She  too  an  artist  is,  and  laughs  at  Man, 

Who  calls  on  rules  the  rightly  hexagon  to  form  : 

A  cunning  Architect,  that  at  the  roof 

Begins  her  golden  work,  and  builds  without  foundation. 

How  she  toils !  and  still,  from  bud  to  btid,  from  flower  to  floweiv 

Travels  the  live  long  day.     Ye  idle  drones. 

That  rather  pilfer,  Uian  your  bread  obtain 

By  honest  means  like  these,  look  here  and  learn 

How  good,  how  fair,  how  honourable  'tis 

To  live  by  industry.     The  busy  tribes  of  Bees, 

So  emulous,  are  daily  fed  with  Heav'ns  peculiar  Manna, 

^Tis  for  them,  (unwaried  Alchym'sts,)  the  blooming  world 

Nectarious  gold  distils ;  and  bounteous  heaven, 

Still  to  the  diligent  and  active  good,  their  very  labour,  makes 

The  certain  cause  of  future  wealth." 

Impressed  as  I  am  with  the  truth  of  these  remarks,  1 
shall  consider  my  system  of  husbandry  as  im|K*rfect,  with- 
out some  general  knowledge  of  the  cultivation  of  Bees  to 
accompany  it,  and  every  farm  as  being  incomplete,  until 
the  labours  of  the  Bee  are  added  to  its  regular  profits. 
I  can  say  nothing  upon  this  interesting  and  valuable  sub- 
ject from  my  own  experience,  and  shall  therefore  annex  to 
my  work  an  abridgment  of  a  learned  work  upon  Bees, 
published  in  London,  in  the  year  1817,  by  the  celebrated 
Apiarian,  Robert  Huish  ;  Author  of  the  Peruvians,  a 
poem,  &c.  Fellow  of  the  University  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
of  Gottingen  ;  Honorary  Member  of  the  Imperial  Apia- 
rian Society  of  V^ienna,  and  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Agricultural  Societies  of  Bavaria  and  Silesia. — vSecond  Edi- 
tion, with  additioTW. 

13 


INTRODUCTION, 


Democritus,  jvhodied  361  jears  before  Christ,  aged 
109  years,  is  the  lirst  Apiarian  whose  works  have  come  down 
to  us.  The  knowledge  of  the  Bee  at  that  age,  was  con- 
hned  to  the  speculative  knowledge  of  Natural  History,  ra- 
ther than  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  economy  and  va~ 
lue  of  this  most  useful  Animal. 

Alexander  De  Montfort  wrote  the  two  first  modern 
1  reatises  upon  the  Bee,  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, entitled  "  the  Portrait  of  the  Honey  Fly,  its  virtues 
form,  &c."  Also,  '*  the  spring  of  the  Honey  Fly,"  divided 
into  two  parts  ;  in  which  will  be  found  a  curious,  true  and 
new  history  of  the  admirable  ai.d  natural  conduct  of  the 
Bee,  &LC.  De  Montfort  notices  a  long  catalogue  of  ancient 
writers  upon  Bees,  particularly,  Aristotle,  Columella,  Var- 
ro,  &c.  and  adds  the  first  practical  touch  to  their  visionary 
speculations.  Virgil  says,  that  a  Bee  is  a  ray  of  th€  Divinity  } 
Plutarch,  that  it  is  a  magazine  of  the  Virtues  ;  Quintilian, 
that  It  IS  the  chief  of  the  Geometricians  ;  and  De  Montfort, 
the  Bee  surpasses,  in  architecture,  the  skill  of  Archi' 
medes.  Plato,  who  riourished  about  forty  years  before 
Democritus,  ascribes  to  the  Bee  a  certain  portion  of  that 
angry  Divinity  which  inspires  Poets,  and  cautions  his  Dis- 
ciples against  disturbing  either  of  them. 

At  the  close  of  the  17th  century,  appeared  Swammer- 
dam,Marald!  and  Ferchault,  all  men  of  science,  who  open- 
ed to  our  view  the  natural  history  of  the  Bee  ;  but  Hodi- 
erna,  of  Totria,  first  disclosed  \he  fl^ct,  that  all  young 
swarms  spring  from  the  eggs  of  the  Queen  Mother.  These 
men  laid  the  foundation  of  the  true  Apiarian  science,  and 
were  translated  into  every  language. 

This  interesting  subject  engrossed  the  attention  of  a 
host  of  writers  through  the  18th  century,  and  at  the  close 
of  it  by  Huber,  (though  blind  nearly,)  most  visionary  of 
them  all. 

Bonner,  a  Scotchman,  is  the  first  good  practical  Apiarian 
that  has  appeared,  and  his  valuable  conversation  has  great- 
ly assisted  the  labours  of  t  s  work,  with  what  success  (ho 
public  must  judge. 


PRACTICAL  IREATISE  ON  BEES, 


*:;^: 


CHAPTER  I. 

On  Bees  in  general. 

I  SHALL  wave  a  description  of  the  different  species  of 
Bees  disseminated  throughout  the  natural  world  by 
the  great  Author  of  Nature,  and  confine  my  remarks 
solely  to  the  common  Bee,  or  honey  fly ;  particu- 
larly, as  the  most  social,  sagacious,  interesting  and 
useful,  of  all  the  instinctive  tribes  of  animals.      ^ 

The  Abbe  Rosier,  one  of  the  best  informed  of  the 
French  agriculturists,  particularizes  four  species  of 
the  domestic  Bees.  The  first  species  are  very  long 
and  brown;  the  second  are  less,  and  almost  black-, 
the  third  are  still  less,  and  of  a  grey  colour  ;  the 
fourth  are  still  less,  and  of  a  bright  yellow,  shining 
and  polished,  and  known  only  in  Flanders, 

The  Bee  rises  with  the  dawn,  and  rests  only  at  the 
dusk  of  evening,  and  continues  her  industry  through- 
out the  year,  in  all  countries  where  the  frosts  of  win- 
ter do  not  impede  her  labours.  The  Bee  is  the  only 
insect  whose  sagacity  has  taught  us,  that  honey  con- 
stitutes the  essence  of  the  blossoms  of  plants,  and  by 
her  industry  has  imparted  to  man  the  luscious  boon* 
The  whole  vegetable  world  is  the  garden  of  the  Bee, 
and  her  cell  her  store-house. 

The  community  of  the  Bees  is  the  first,  the  great- 
est, and  best  example  in  nature,  of  a  perfect  commu- 
nity In  their  harmony  and  good  order,  mutual  en- 
terprise, and  efforts  to  promote  the  general  good,  in 
their  ardour  of  pursuit   in  quest  of  stores,   to  lon^* 


148  THE    FARMER'S    MAITUAL. 

theiF  legs,  back,  and  wings,  and  flit  away  to  the 
store-house  of  common  deposit ;  and  in  their  mutual 
aid  in  assisting  each  other  to  unload  their  burthens, 
together  with  their  nice  economy  in  feeding  out  the 
con:;mon  stock.  The  community  of  the  Bee  is  not  a 
republic,  but  a  brotherhood,  a  monarchy  with  a  com- 
munity of  goods,  and  governed  by  a  queen.  The 
queen  is  not  the  tyrant  of  the  swarm,  but  the  mother 
of  the  swarm.  She  is  not  the  dispenser  of  laws  to 
the  swarm,  but  the  subject  of  the  same  fixed  and 
immutable  laws  of  nature,  which  govern  every  Bee 
in  the  swarm. 

The  Bees  know  each  other,  and  are  armed  with  a 
sting  for  common  defence.  They  know  their  keep- 
ers, and  generally  respect  them.  They  possess  a 
natural  disgust,  which  has  not  yet  been  fully  ac- 
counted for,  and  attack,  and  sting  the  objects  of  this 
disgust  wherever  they  meet  them ;  invariably.  The 
Bee  is  very  sagacious  in  judging  of  the  weather,  and 
avoids  the  storm  by  retiring  to  her  hive,  or  shelter- 
ing herself  under  the  foliage  of  plants  and  trees. 
The  whole  swarm  manifest  an  affectionate  attention 
to  the  queen  mother,  unexampled  in  nature',  and  are 
constantly  employed  for  her  support  and  preservation. 
The  natural  period  of  the  life  of  the  Bee  is  not  yet 
known,  but  they  are  more  generally  the  victims  of 
the  casualties  of  nature,  rather  than  old  age.  The 
dysentery  is  their  most  common  and  fatal  nialady, 
and  they  destroy  by  violence  all  the  lame  and  infirm, 
together  with  the  drones,  by  banishing  them  from  the 
hive;  thus  illustrating  the  sacred  maxim,  ''  He  that 
will  not  work,  neither  shall  he  eat ;"  with  the  addi- 
tion of  their  own  natural  law,  *^  He  that  cannot 
work,  neither  shall  he  eat."  The  first  is  perfectly 
conformable  to  the  principles  of  humanity,  and  com- 
mon sense  ;  the  latter  is  repugnant  to  both.  A  ge- 
neral, as  well  as  particular  system  of  cleanliness  per 
vades  the  community,  and  no  dead  Bee  is  suffered  * 
remain  in  the  hive. 


VHE  farmer's  manual.  149 

The  particular  laws  of  instinct,  bc^in  to  govern 
the  Bee  as  soon  as  it  quits  its  nymphal  state,  and  is 
capable  of  action  ;  and  one  uniform  system  of  order 
regulates  his  movements,  in  union  with  the  whole 
swarm,  throughout  all  the  instinctive  operations  of 
them.  As  well  might  the  wise  man  have  said,  Go  to 
the  Bee  thou  sluggard,  consider  her  ways  and  be  wise* 


CHAP.  II. 

Description  of  the  Queen  Bee. 

In  our  last  chapter,  we  noticed  the  character  of  the 
Bee,  and  the  instinctive  character  of  a  swarm,  or  com- 
munity, with  its  queen  Bee,  as  the  mother  and  ruler  of 
the  family;  as  an  elective  monarchy,  upon  the  death  of 
the  queen,  and  a  monarchy  with  a  community  of  pro- 
perty, and  nature's  immutable  instinctive  laws  as 
their  only  guide.  This  chapter  describes  the  queen 
mother  as  not  formed  by  nature  for  labour,  but  form* 
ed  only  to  rule,  and  to  breed.  Her  teeth  and  her 
tvings  are  unfit  for  labour,  being  much  shorter  than 
the  common  Bees  and  the  drones.  The  body  of 
the  queen  is  much  longer  and  slimer  than  the  other 
Bees,  her  belly  of  a  bright  yello\v,  an^  her  back 
and  wings,  of  a  brighter  hue.  The  queen  pos- 
sesses an  astonishing  fecundity,  unequalled  by  any 
thing  in  nature,  except  the  fish  5  her  body  is  re- 
plete with  eggs,  arranged  in  two  ovaria,  and  prepar^ 
ed  for  the  breeding  season.  These  she  deposits  iit 
her  cells,  so  long  as  a  cell  is  vacant,  and  thus  lays 
the  foundation  for  the  young  swarm.  I  say  lays  the 
foundation,  but  whether  perfect,  or  imperfect,  is  yet 
a  question  ;  the  fecundity  of  the  Bee  after  all  the 
elaborate  research  of  man,  is  yet  a  mystery  unsettled 
13  * 


ioG  run    FARMER^S  MANUAL* 

by  Apiarians.  Mr.  Huish  is  decidedly  of  opiraoi:, 
that  the  queen  knows  not  coition,  that  she  is  a  virgir 
mother,  and  that  her  eggs  are  impregnated  by  th 
drones,  after  she  has  deposited  them  in  the  cells  ;  but 
a  whole  host  of  Apiarians  are  opposed  to  the  senti- 
ment, yet  all  agree  in  this,  that  the  act  of  coition  has 
never  been  discovered.  The  queen  is  not  only  the 
mother  and  queen  of  the  hive,  but  the  soul  of  the 
hive.  All  is  order  whilst  she  lives,  and  all  is  confu- 
sion the  moment  she  is  dead ;  hence  the  reason  why 
she  seldom  if  ever  ventures  abroad,  and  why  the 
whole  swarm  ^o  cheerfully  and  affectionately  support 
and  protect  her  in  the  hive.  Thus  nature  provides 
for  their  peace  and  order,  by  giving  the  queen  Bee 
short  and  feeble  wings  for  flight,  and  short  and  feeble 
teeth  for  labour,  fitted  only  for  her  own  feeding,  to- 
gether with  a  feeble  sting,  and  a  mild  temper  to 
shield  her  from  exposure  to  violence  and  death. 
The  queen  not  only  governs  the  swarm  by  their  affec- 
tions, but  she  leads  them  wherever  she  goes,  and  is 
their  rallying  poifit,  both  in  and  out  of  tbe  hive, 
whenever  she  ventures  abroad.  All  this,  together 
with  every  movement  and  operation  of  the  Bee,  is 
the  result,  not  of  their  particular  municipal  laws,  but 
of  that  general  law  of  instinct,  derived  from  God 
their  Creator,  at  their  first  formation.  Much  visiona- 
ry speculation  has  infested  the  brains  of  Apiarians 
upon  the  fecundation  of  the  queen  Bee,  but  all  are 
agreed  in  this,  that  the  cell  in  which  the  queen  Bee 
is  born,  is  perpendicular  and  circular,  whereas  all 
the  others  are  hexagonal  and  horizontal,  and  the 
queen  mother  knows  what  will  be  the  offspring  of  the 
egg  that  she  lays  in  the  circular  cells.  The  cell  of 
the  drone  is  diflerent  still,  being  neither  circular,  nor 
hexagonal,  but  irregular;  this  has  again  led  Apia- 
rians into  much  hypothetical  disquisition,  without  de- 
monstration, and  all  fraught  with  more  theory  thar 
profit. 


THE    farmer's    MANUALr  l5t 

CHAP.    III. 

On  the  Drones. 

The  wings  of  the  drone  are  shorter  in  proportion 
to  his  body  than  the  mules,  or  working  Bees,  which 
occasions  that  humming  sound  which  distinguishes 
them  in  their  flight.  Nature  has  regulated  the  num- 
btr  of  drones  in  each  hive  with  a  direct  proportion 
to  the  number  of  working  Bees,  from  4  to  8  and  1200, 
and  the  fecundity  of  the  queen  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  cells.  The  drone  has  no  sting,  and  gathers 
no  food  ;  he,  therefore,  neither  works  nor  fights,  but 
his  whole  utility  in  the  hive  consists  in  being  an  in- 
strument of  fecundating  the  eggs  when  deposited  in 
the  cells,  or  otherwise  as  may  be. 

The  antenna  of  the  drones  possess  eleven  articu- 
lations,  and  the  other  Bees  have  fifteen.  Their  eyes 
cover  all  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  and  the  other 
Bees  have  one  oval  eye  upon  each  side  of  their  head. 
Their  teeth  are  smaller,  and  their  probosces  shorter 
than  the  common  Bees  ;  and  thus  nature  has  prepar- 
ed them  for  useful  inoffensive  animals  in  the  hive* 
Whenever  you  discover  that  a  hive  becomes  deficient 
in  drones,  (which  sometimes  happens,)  you  may  re- 
plenish such  hive  by  catching  a  few  from^some  other 
hive,  as  they  pass  and  repass,  generally  about  mid- 
day ;  confine  them  until  evening,  and  you  may  theo 
introduce  them  to  a  general  acceptance.  Where  a 
want  of  drones  is  not  sensibly  felt,  the  new  intruders 
are  sometimes  murdered,  by  a  general  assault.  For 
safety,  two  or  three  may  be  introduced,  and  their  re- 
ception will  decide  what  is  best.  When  the  season 
of  fecundation  and  gathering  food  are  over,  the  work- 
ing Bees  assemble,  and  commence  a  general  assault 
upon  the  drones,  drag  them  out  of  the  hives,  and  de- 
stroy the  whole,  by  a  general  slaughter.  Thus  the 
whole  system  of  nature  is  finished  for  the  season,  in 
the  community  of  the  Bees. 


•^*  THE    farmer's    manual,  ,- 

CHAP,  IV. 

071  the  common  Bees^ 

The  term  common  Bees,  working  Bees,  or  mules, 
will  apply  to  all  the  others  in  the  swarm,  exrcpting 
the  queen  and  the  flrones,  because  they  form  the 
mass  of  the  community,  and  do  the  labour,  by  laying 
in  stores  for  the  hive,  and  nourish  the  brood,  and  are 
neutral  in  their  propagation.  Much  curious  hypothe- 
sis has  appeared  amongst  Apiarians,  upon  the  order 
and  regularity  in  apportioning  the  employments  and 
tasks  of  labour  in  the  community,  but  this  is  now  ge- 
rally  exploded,  and  each  Bee  is  left  to  the  govern- 
ment of  his  own  instinct,  in  apportioning  and  per- 
forming his  several  duties. 

The  whole  field  of  nature  abounds  with  the  inex- 
plicable mysteries  of  providence  ;  and  the  Bee,  by  her 
wonderful  sagacity,  has  unlocked  one  of  those  myste- 
ries, by  extracting  honey  from  plants,  and  flowers,  and 
converting  it  to  the  support  of  herself,  and  the  use  of 
man  ;  but  how  this  honey  is  produced  in  the  opera- 
lions  of  nature,  in  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  how 
the  Bee  extracts  it  in  exclusion  to  the  other  juices  of 
the  same  plants,  is  all  inexplicable  to  us,  and  is  one, 
amongst  the  millions  of  nature's  works,  to  show  how 
little  of  nature  man  can  know. 

I  shall  continue  this  chapter  with  a  description  of 
the  Bee  by  Mr.  Huish.  "  In  regard  to  the  physical 
description  of  the  Bee,  the  most  remarkable  parts  of 
it  are  the  head,  the  breast,  and  the  bell}'.  On  the 
former,  are  observed  two  wonderful  eyes  placed  in 
the  side,  two  antenna,  two  hard  teeth,  or  jaws,  which 
play  on  opening  and  shutting,  from  the  left  to  the 
right.  These  teeth  enable  it  to  collect  the  wax,  to 
knead  it,  to  construct  the  cells,  and  to  remove  from 
the  hive  every  obnoxious  thing.  Below  these  teeth 
we  observe  a  proboscis,  which  has  the  appearance 
of  a  thick  fleshy  substance,  of  a  very  shining  ches- 


THE  J'ARMER^fi    MANUAti,  153 

nut  colour.  This  substance  is  divided  into  two  parts 
very  supple  at  the  end,  and  it  is  only  seen  at  its  full 
length  when  the  Bee  is  employed  in  collecting  honey 
in  water.  If  the  teeth  be  separated,  we  observe  at 
the  orifice  of  the  proboscis  an  opening,  which  is  the 
mouth,  and  above  it  a  fleshy  substance  which  is  the 
tongue ;  their  use  will  be  explained  in  the  sequel. 
The  breast  is  attached  to  the  head  by  a  very  short 
neck ;  it  carries  four  wings  upon  it,  the  two  last  are 
longer  than  the  two  first.  It  has  six  feet,  on  the  two 
hinder  of  which,  are  two  triangular  cavities,  in  which 
the  Bee  by  degrees  collects  the  farina  from' the  plants. 
At  the  extremity  of  the  six  feet,  are  two  sorts  of  fangs, 
with  w^iich  the  Bees  attach  themselves  to  the  sides  of 
the  hives,  and  to  each  other.  From  the  middle  of 
these  fangs,  on  the  four  hinder  legs,  project  four 
bushy  substances,  the  use  of  which  are  to  collect  the 
dust  of  the  flowers,  attached  to  the  hairs  of  their  bo- 
dy, and  are  of  the  same  use  as  hands.  The  body, 
properly  called,  is  united  to  the  breast  by  a  species 
of  thread,  and  is  composed  of  six  scaly  rings. 
The  whole  body  of  the  Bee  appears,  even  to  the 
naked  eye,  to  be  well  clothed.  Age  makes  a  little 
difference  with  them  in  point  of  colour ;  those  of  the 
present  year  are  brown,  and  have  greyish  hairs ; 
those  of  the  preceding  year,  have  reddish  hair,  and 
the  scales  less  brown,  rather  inclining  to  a  black. 
Their  wings  are  often  torn  and  fringed  at  the  ends, 
occasioned  by  their  former  flights.  On  the  wings^ 
and  on  the  breast,  are  observed  small  orifices,  or 
pores,  in  the  shape  of  a  mouth,  by  which  the  Bee 
respires,  these  are  the  lungs  of  the  body,  (technical- 
ly called  stysmates  ;)  this  part,  which  is  of  a  wonder- 
ful construction,  is  both  common  to  the  Bee,  and  all 
other  insects.  The  interior  of  the  body  consists  of 
four  parts ;  the  intestines,  the  honey-bag,  the  venom 
vessel,  and  the  sting.  The  honey-bag  is  as  large  as 
a  pea,  when  it  is  filled  ;  transparent  as  chrystal,  and 
is  the  store-house  of  the  Bee,  when  collecting  th*^, 


154  -THE  farmer's  manual. 

honey,  and  which  she  transports,  and  lays  up  for  the 
use  of  the  swarm  in  winter,  in  the  common  stock. 

"  The  vessel  which  contains  the  venom  is  at  the 
root  of  the  sting,  and  is  conveyed  with  the  wound  of 
the  sting.  The  sting  is  a  sharp,  barbed,  hard  sub- 
stance, at  the  extremity  of  the  belly,  and  is  both  the 
offensive,  and  defensive  weapon  of  the  Bee. 

"  The  Bee  easily  inflicts  a  wound  with  her  sting,  and 
from  its  barbed  surface,  often  leave  the  sting  behind, 
which  generally  proves  fatal  to  the  Bee.  The  sting 
of  the  Bee  effects  persons  very  differently,  some  witii 
much  pain  and  injury,  others  with  very  little  sensi- 
ble effect.  Many  remedies  have  been  suggested  for 
the  sting  of  the  Bee,  but  the  best  remedy  may  be 
found  in  extracting  the  sting  immediately,  and  apply 
a  little  laudanum.  To  prevent  the  swelling  arising 
from  the  sting  of  the  Bee,  I  know  of  no  remedy  more 
efficacious  than  Venice  Treacle,  or  olive-oil.  In 
regard  to  the  former,  it  is  well  known  to  be  a  speci- 
fic against  the  bite  of  the  viper.  In  the  Archipelago, 
it  is  customary  to  keef>  a  bottle  of  olive-oil  close  to 
the  Apiary,  and  apply  it  instantly  to  the  puncture  of 
the  Bee  ;  the  mischief  is  generally  prevented.  The 
juice  of  the  onion,  mixed  with  common  salt  is  also  a 
good  remedy." 

All  these  details  can  only  produce  on  the  rational 
mind  a  more  distinct  and  extensive  knowledge  of  that 
infinite  intelligence,  who  has  arranged  the  creatures 
of  this  earth,  presided  at  their  organization,  and  re- 
gulated their  existence  and  configuration.  There  is 
nothing  in  nature  which  can  so  fully  demonstrate  to 
us,  an  equally  wise  and  powerful  Being. 

The  insects,  the  most  vile,  are,  perhaps,  more  ad- 
mirable in  their  structure  than  the  sun,  and  the  most 
brilliant  stars.  What  proportion  !  w^hat  harmony  I 
what  correspondence  in  every  part  of  the  Bee.  How 
many  combinations,  arrangements,  causes,  effects  and 
principles,  which  tend  to  the  same  end,  and  concur 
in  the  same  design  I     What  exactness,  what  symme 


THE  farmer's  manual.  155 

try  in  its  Uttle  body,  apparently  contemptible,  and  so 
little  admired  by  ignorant  and  inattentive  persons  ! 
As  in  the  greater  number  of  animals,  so  we  observe 
in  the  Bee,  vessels  without  number,  liquids,  motions, 
often  united  in  an  imperceptible  point;  all  the  organs 
of  life,  the  instruments  of  labour,  weapons  to  com- 
mand victory  when  attacked,  or  the  instruments  of 
escape  from  a  superior  foe,  with  a  thousand  that  adorn 
its  exterior  form.  Every  thing  in  these  insects  an- 
nounces that  supreme  Wisdom,  that  presided  at  the 
formation  of  a  work  so  perfect,  so  industrious,  so  su- 
pei*lor  in  structure  and  sagacity  to  every  thing  that 
art  could  ever  produce.  All  this,  when  combined  with 
the  rich  blessings  which  they  impart  to  man,  call  for  hk 
homage,  gratitude,  admiration  and  love* 


CHAP.  V. 

On  hives  in  general. 

The  forest  is  the  original  and  natural  dwelling  for 
the  Bee,  and  the  recess  of  some  cavern,  or  hollow 
trunk  of  a  tree,  the  ancient  and  most  natural  resi- 
dence, and  place  of  deposit  for  this  sagacious  insect. 
It  is  the  art  of  the  Apiarian,  which  has  taught  the  Bee 
to  become  domesticated,  and  yield  part  of  his  labours 
and  rich  treasure,  for  the  comlbrts  and  conveniences 
of  man.  To  assist  the  Apiarian,  the  farmer,  and 
even  all  classes  of  people,  who  may  possess  the  ad- 
vantages and  the  disposition,  in  deriving  the  greatest 
possible  good  from  this  store-house  of  nature,  is  the 
immediate  design  of  this  Treatise,  or  rather  of  these 
extracts.  In  order  to  invite  the  Bee  into  our  domes- 
tic employment,  it  became  necessary  to  substitute  a 
new  dwelling  in  place  of  the  hollow  tree  of  the  forest  \ 
hence  the  reason  why  hives  were  first  made  of  a  sec- 
lion  of  a  hollow  tree.     The  difficulty  of  obtaining  this*. 


156  THE  farmer's  manual, 

led  to  the  expedient  of  weaving  the  straw  hive,  which 
continues  in  common  use  to  this  day.  The  many 
objections  which  have  arisen  to  both  these  hives, 
have  led  the  Apiarians,  through  nice  and  curious  re- 
search, to  ascertain  t|ie  best  materials  for  construct- 
ing the  hives  for  Bees,  and  the  best  forms  to  con- 
struct those  materials  into,  to  obtain  the  greatest  pro- 
fit from  the  labours  of  the  Bee,  with  the  least  ex- 
pense to  ourselves,  and  loss  and  damage  to  the  Bees : 
for  the  solution  of  this  question,  we  must  resort  to  the 
experiments  of  the  Apiarian.  Happy  would  it  be 
for  us  and  them,  if  their  labours  could  furnish  an  an- 
swer to  the  inquiry  promptly  ;  but  unfortunately  this 
is  not  the  case,  their  own  experiments  have  deceived 
them,  and  this  should  lead  us  to  be  cautious  that  they 
do  not  deceive  us.  Mr.  Huish  admits,  that  no  seri- 
ous objections  can  lie  against  straw  as  a  materia!  for 
the  construction  of  bee-hives;  but  objects  only  to 
the  common  form,  viz.  the  bell-hives,  as  being  un- 
healthy to  the  swarms,  and  difficult  to  extract  any 
portion  of  the  honey  from,  without  suffocating  the 
bees,  which  he  very  justly  abhors  :  he  therefore  ex- 
plodes the  bell  shaped  hives.  Our  author  goes  on 
to  object  to  the  glass  hives,  constructed  to  gratify  the 
curious,  as  being  unfriendly  to  the  labours  of  the  Bee. 
He  adds,  "  I  have  kept  glass  hives  of  every  sort  in 
hopes  to  obtain  some  clue  to  the  developement  of 
their  secrets  ;  but  I  candidly  confess,  that  light  was 
no  sooner  admitted,  than  the  utmost  confusion  prevailed 
in  the  hive,  in  that  particular  part,  and  the  Bees  were 
seen  running  about  in  the  greatest  consternation  ;  con- 
sequently I  never  attained  to  the  knowledge  of  a  single 
operation  of  the  Bees  by  means  of  a  glass  hive.  I 
therefore,  call  in  question  all  fat:ts  stated  as  the  dis- 
coveries of  a  glass  hive.  Although  the  Bee  will 
work  in  any  hive,  of  any  shape,  yet  the  choice  of  that 
shape  is  of  importance  to  the  health  and  profit  of 
your  Bees.  The  great  body  of  the  people  continue 
the  common  hive,  and  the  common  practice  of  smo- 


'I'WE  pahmer's  manual.  1.5T 

thering  the  swarm,  when  they  take  their  honey — 
both  are  bad;  and  the  latter  is  not  only  bad,  as 
being  unprofitable,  but  absolutely  cruel,  and  unne- 
cessarily so.  To  remedy  these  evils,  the  Apiarians 
in  all  countries  have  been  led  to  the  improvement, 
both  in  the  form  of  the  hive,  and  method  of  dividing 
the  profits  of  their  labours  with  the  Bees,  and  yet 
preserve  the  swarms.  Happy  for  the  cause  both  of 
interest  and  humanity,  they  have  succeeded.  Had 
these  Amateurs  been  agreed  in  one  result,  as  being 
the  best  of  all  their  experiments,  I  might  now  say  so, 
and  close  this  chapter  with  their  joint  recommenda- 
tion ;  but  their  decisions  are  so  various,  it  may  be 
useful  to  sketch  a  few  of  their  improvements,  as  ex- 
emplified in  the  form  of  their  hives. 

The  storying  system  has  been,  and  is  now,  greatly 
approved  in  France,  and  was  invented  by  Gelieu  ;  yet 
/i his  system  has  its  opposers  now,  even  in  France, 
and  with  some  severity.  All  are  agreed,  that  the  sto- 
rying system  has  its  advantages,  as  well  as  some  dis- 
advantages ;  yet  one  thing  ^s  certain,  it  divides  the 
labours,  or  profits,  of  the  Bees,  without  injury,  or  dis- 
turbance, to  their  lives,  or  labours.  This  system  has 
also  been  strongly  approved  and  recommended  bv 
Bonner,  in  Scotland :  also  by  Ducouedic,  of  the 
Canton  of  Maure.  This  is  the  common  straw 
hive  placed  on  a  pedestal,  or  table.  The  Bees  it 
contains  were  a  swarm  of  the  21st  of  June,  1812. 
In  this  state,  they  passed  the  summer,  autumn, 
and  winter,  and  on  the  21st  of  March,  1813,  it 
would  be  nine  months  old.     On  the  2 1st  of  March, 

1813,  the  first  story  will  be  added  to  it,  and  this 
is  called  a  Scotch  hive,  in  compliment  to  Bon- 
ner. This  hive  will  remain  in  the  state  of  a  sin- 
gle story,  for  an  entire  year,  to  the  2Ist  of  March, 

1814.  If  the  population  of  the  hive  has  been  consi^ 
derable,  and  the  season  favourable,  during  the  first 
year,  it  may  be  expected  in  the  second  to  throw  oft^ 
one  or  two  strong  swarms.     On  the  return  of  the 

14 


158  THE  farmer's  manual^ 

spring,  1814,  this  hive  will  be  21  months  old;  nine 
months  as  a  simple  hive,  and  twelve  with  one  story. 
It  commences,  on  the  21st  of  March,  1814,  its  pyrami- 
dal form,  at  the  age  of  21  months.  These  three  hives 
are  plastered  with  mortar,  or  clay,  at  their  junction,  by 
which  they  appear  to  form  but  one  distinct  hive,  and 
the  Bees  can  only  enter  and  depart  at  one  open- 
ing in  the  lower  «tor)%  By  means  of  holes  bored 
in  the  top  of  the  lower  stories,  the  Bees  can  pass 
from  one  story  to  the  other  freely.  This  colony  will 
exist  in  the  state  of  a  two  storied  hive  from  the  21st 
of  March  to  the  21st  of  September  of  the  same  year  5 
it  will  then  be  27  months  old.  Several  swarms  will 
have  been  obtained  through  all  the  different  stages, 
from  the  single  one,  to  the  pyramidal  one.  The 
swarms  of  the  latter  are  considerable  ;  especially 
those  of  the  second  and  subsequent  years.  They 
generally  weigh  from  twelve  to  tv;enty  pounds.  On 
the  21st  of  September,  as  soon  as  the  drones  have 
been  destroyed  by  the  Bees,  you  may  remove  the 
iirst  story  of  the  colony,  it  will  be  found  full  of  wax 
and  honey,  without  Bees  and  brood  ;  the  honey  will 
be  of  the  present  year,  as  the  Bees  will  have  consum- 
ed that  of  the  preceding  years.  When,  on  the  21st 
of  September,  the  first  story  is  removed,  the  hive 
will  cease  to  be  pyramidal,  and  will  return  to  its  for- 
mer state  of  two  stories ;  in  this  state  it  will  pass  the 
6  months  of  autumn  and  winter,  but  on  the  return  of 
March,  another  story  must  be  given  to  it,  and  it  again 
becomes  a  pyramidal  hive.  The  Bees  of  a  pyramidal 
hive  never  perish  with  hunger,  nor  cold.  It  is  too 
rich  to  want  provisions,  and  too  numerous  to  be  ef- 
fected by  the  severity  of  winter,  and  by  their  heat, 
they  bring  forward  their  spring  brood  one  month 
^3arlier  than  a  single  hive.  Such  is  the  character 
'riven  by  Ducouedic  of  the  storied  hive.  Let  me  re- 
mark that  their  swarming  one  month  earlier  in  spring 
than  the  single  hive,  is  no  small  advantage  in  the  es 


THE    farmer's    manual*  159 

dmation  of  all  such  as  are  acquainted  with  the  value 
and  economy  of  Bees. 

An  advocate  of  the  st0i7ing  system  says,  *'  No 
cause  exists  why  a  certain  number  of  stories  should 
not  be  placed,  for  several  months,  and  even  for  a 
^^ear;  that  much  is  gained  by  it,  provided,  for  this 
period  of  time,  the  boxes  are  made  of  a  convenient 
and  proper  size,"  &;c.  To  this  system,  Mr.  Huish 
is  lengthy  and  particular  in  his  objections  ;  the  amount 
of  which  is,  that  the  flat  hives  used  in  this  process, 
are  injurious  to  the  health,  and  even  life  of  the  Bees, 
and  principally  on  account  of  the  moisture  which  the 
swarm  emits  by  perspiration,  being  collected  upon 
the  tops  of  the  hives,  and  there  being  condensed  by 
the  influence  of  the  cold  air,  falls  again  upon  the 
Bees,  and  occasions  their  worst  malady,  the  dysentery. 
These  vapours,  Mr.  Huish  found  actually  frozen  to  a 
sheet  of  ice  in  the  top  of  one  of  his  glass  hives,  in 
the  hard  winter  of  1814,  and  at  once  concludes  this 
vapour  to  be  both  noxious  and  destructive  to  the 
swarm.  He  then  proceeds,  '*  Hives  with  convex  tops 
conduct  this  condensed  vapour  down  the  sides  of  the 
hives,  and  thus  screen  the  swarm  from  the  falling 
drops,  and  preserve  them  dry."  The  writer  con- 
cludes this  chapter  v/ith  the  following  description 
of  a  hive  of  his  own  invention,  for  his  own  particu- 
lar use,  which  pleased  him,  and  has  the  strength  of 
his  recommendation  added  to  its  value. 

'*  Having  now  examined  the  different  hives  which 
are  now  in  use  in  this  country,  (England,)  and  upon 
the  continent,  it  barely  remains  for  me  to  describe  the 
hive,  which,  although  its  general  principles  are  of  an 
early  date,  yet  its  improvements  have  been  entirely 
suggested  by  myself.  As  it  has  always  been  my 
invariable  study  to  preserve  the  lives  of  these  valua- 
ble insects,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  reap  the  great- 
est possible  advantage  from  their  labours,  the  se- 
lection of  a  proper  abode  for  them,  was  a  matter  of 
p.o  secondary  consideration  ;  for  on  this  must  depend 


'BO  THE    farmer's    manual, 

the  success  of  the  undertaking.  My  first  object  was 
to  select  those  materials  which  I  judged  most  suita- 
ble for  the  purpose,  and,  after  repeated  experiments, 
I  was  convinced  that  none  were  more  suitable  than 
straw.  This  I  know  is  denied  by  Huber ;  but  I  must 
be  allowed,  in  this  instance,  to  differ  from  that  cele=^ 
brated  Apiarian.  The  shape  of  the  hive  was  my 
next  consideration.  1  had  been  so  often  defeated  in 
Q^y  expectations  regarding  the  deprivation  of  the 
common  straw  hive,  and  especially  by  the  sticks  with 
which  they  are  superfluously  furnished,  to  keep  the 
honey  from  falling,  that  I  was  persuaded  it  was  a 
shape  suited  only  to  the  use  of  those  persons  who 
suffocate  their  Bees ;  but  to  the  deprivator,  it  was  the 
most  inconvenient  and  unmanageable  sort  that  could 
be  devised.  It  was  a  flower-pot  which  first  gave  me 
an  idea  of  the  shape,  and  which  appeared  to  possess 
peculiar  advantages.  It  would,  in  the  first  place,  su- 
percede the  necessity  of  sticks,  for  the  comb  then 
acting  like  a  wedge,  being  larger  at  the  top  than  the 
bottom,  would  not  fall  on  to  the  board.  One  only 
method  now  presented  itself  of  extracting  the  comb, 
and  this  was  at  the  top ;  and  this  I  knew  could  not 
be  effected,  if  the  combs  were  all  constructed  in  one 
mass,  upon  one  basis,  which  is  common  to  the  gene- 
rality of  hives,  I  reflected  that  a  Bee  will  never 
work  upon  an  unstable  foundation,  and  that  my  plan 
would  succeed,  if  I  could  insert  some  network  be- 
tween the  "pieces  of  wood.  Having  obtained  seven 
pieces  of  well  seasoned  wood,  about  one  and  a  half 
inch  broad,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
I  laid  them  equidistant  on  the  top  of  the  hive ; 
and  having  fastened  them  to  the  outer  band  which 
serves  as  their  basis,  and  covered  them  with  network, 
over  which  I  placed  n  circular  board,  the  whole 
size  of  the  hive.  I  then  divided  the  circular  board 
into  five  pieces,  which  are  attached  to  each  oth- 
er by  hinges;  each  one  can  be  opened  separately 
-non  occasiori-      To  obviate  the  obiection  of  thb 


tHE  farmer's  manual.  161 

flat  top,  (on  account  of  the  moisture  as  before  notic- 
ed,) 1  made  six  holes  in  the  top  board,  and  closed 
them  with  plates  of  tin,  perforated  with  small  holes. 
The  whole  I  covered  with  a  convex  straw  cover, 
constructed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  hive.  This 
guarded  the  swarm  from  moisture,  without  and  with- 
in. Whenever  1  require  some  honey-comb,  at  any 
season  of  the  year,  I  open  the  top,  by  removing 
the  cover,  and  take  out  one  of  the  side  boards, 
(as  above,)  cut  oft'  the  comb,  and  replace  the  board 
again,  as  before,  or  clap  in  another  of  the  same  di- 
mensions, if  the  Bees  prove  troublesome.  This 
operation  is  quick  done,  without  disturbing  the  mid- 
dle combs,  and  often  without  the  loss  of  one  single  Bee. 
In  the  month  of  August,  1810,  I  obtained  from  one 
of  my  hives  18lbs.  of  beautiful  honey-comb;  by 
the  10th  of  September,  the  void  was  filled  again,  and 
I  took  out  lOlbs.  more,  leaving  a  sufficiency  to  sup- 
ply the  sv/arm  through  the  winter.  This  hive  will 
aever  require  any  enlargement  to  give  the  Bees 
more  room ;  this  may  always  be  done  by  extracting 
the  comb  as  above.  It  opens  the  whole  interior  of 
the  hive  for  your  inspection,  whenever  you  wish 
to  search  the  hive  for  moths,  mice,  or  other  destruc- 
tive evils  to  your  Bees." 

Mr.  Huish  goes  on  to  observe,  that  from  his  expe- 
rience in  the  management  of  Bees  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  from  his  very  extensive  correspond- 
ence and  personal  acquaintance  with  most  of  the 
learned  Apiarians  in  Europe,  he  concludes  that  no 
form  of  hive  can  be  constructed,  which  will  ensure 
great  harvests  of  wax,  honey  and  swarms.  These 
are  chimerae  which  it  is  in  vain  to  pursue,  because  the 
whole  depends  upon  the  season,  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try, and  the  general  supply  of  honey ;  all  which,  have 
a  peculiar  influence  on  the  fecundity  of  the  queen 
Bee.  To  these  causes  it  must  be  ascribed,  why  the 
mode  of  treatment  which  answers  well  this  year,  will 
not  answer  well  the  next,  or  is  so  variable  under  the 

14* 


^^^  THE    FARMER^S    MANUAL 

same  appearances.  This  difference  of  seasons  has 
occasioned  all  the  various  construction  of  hiveSj 
which  serve  only  to  show,  that  the  Bee  will  work  in 
any  hollow  vessel,  that  will  conceal  her  from  view, 
and  guard  her  from  the  weather.  To  illustrate  this 
tact,  I  have  sketched  the  form  of  several  different 
hives,  as  well  as  to  illustrate  a  more  important  fact, 
that  every  system  is  bad,  that  destroys  the  Bees  to 
rob  the  hives,  and  that  all  the  systems  are  good, 
which  preserve  the  Bees,  and  divide  their  labours  for 
the  use  of  man,  without  injury  to  the  swarms  ;  but 
more  particularly  to  show,  that  the  storying  system, 
:s  one  of  the  best  modes,  and  that  his  new  invented 
'live  is  the  very  best*. 


CHAP.  VL 

On  the  portion  of  the  Apiary^  or  Bee-House* 

This  is  the  place  where  the  hives  are  assembled, 
whether  in  the  open  atr,  or  under  cover,  called  the 
bee-house.  In  southern  countries,  Mr.  Huish  ob- 
serves, the  aspect  should  always  be  to  the  east,  to 
give  the  Bees  the  first  light  of  the  dawn.  In  nor- 
thern countries,  the  aspect  should  be  between  south 
ind  east,  to  enjoy  the  morning  dawn,  under  a  shelter 
from  the  north  winds.  In  England,  he  observes,  the 
aspect  is  often  in  all  directions,  but  adds,  they  should 
he  secure  against  the  winds.  The  hives  should  al- 
ways stand  upon  a  right  line,  in  a  single  row ;  that 
rows  one  above  the  other  do  well,  but  seldom  when 
double  upon  the  same  shelf — as  they  are  more  ex- 
posed to  robbery  from  each  other ;  that  the  Bee,  in 


*  Quere.  Whether  the  new  invented  hive  of  the  author,  with  its 
oiivex  top,  might  not  be  apphed  to  the  storying  system,  and  thus 
omplete  ka  perlection.    It  may  be  worth  aa  experiment. 


tH^  farmer's  manual:  i63 

his  flight  from  the  hive,  generally  takes  an  elevation 
of  45  degrees  with  the  horizon,  therefore,  the  hives 
should  stand  low,  say  two  feet  from  the  ground. 
This  elevation  will  guard  the  Bees  against  the  mois- 
ture of  the  ground,  the  toads,  mice,  ants,  &:c.  and 
prevent  their  gaining  such  an  ascent  in  their  flight, 
when  they  swarm,  as  to  prevent  ther  lighting,  and 
thus  occasion  their  loss  to  the  proprietor.  To  esta- 
blish this  remark,  Mr.  Huish  cites  a  memoir  address- 
ed to  the  Society  of  Agriculture  of  Paris,  illustrating 
the  fact.  He  then  observes,  that  the  board  on  w^hich 
the  hive  stands,  should  be  carefully  secured  against 
warping,  as  the  wasps,  &ic,  will  rob  the  hives  at  such 
openings,  under  the  bottoms  of  the  hives,  and  that 
every  shrub,  plant,  or  weed,  should  be  cleared  away 
from  the  Apiary,  that  can  obstruct  the  flight  of  thfe 
Bees,  or  give  the  mouse,  the  ant,  &c.  access  to  the 
hive  ;  that  great  cleanliness  should  be  observed  in 
and  about  the  Apiary,  generally.  He  concludes,  that 
the  neighbourhood  of  large  towns,  and  large  rivers, 
are  unfavourable  situations  for  an  Apiary  ;  the  first, 
from  the  destruction  the  Bees  suifer  from  smoke,  the 
swallows,  particularly  the  chimney  swallows,  and  the 
last,  from  often  being  drowned  in  their  flight,  from 
high  winds,  &c.  He  recommends  an  open  country, 
a  free  air,  an  eastern  aspect,  security  from  winds  and 
moisture,  &c.  as  being  essential  to  the  position  of  an 
Apiary. 


CHAP.  VII. 

Oil  the  enemies  of  the  Bees» 

Man,  the  worst  enemy  of  the  Bee;  where  he  uses 
the  sir.othering  method  of  robbing  the  hives  ;  yes, 
man,  that  boasted  child  of  reason,  for  whose  enjoy- 
ment the  Bee  toils  through  her  life,  to  draw  from  nar- 


i64  THE  farmer's   manual y 

ture,  nature's  choicest  nectar;  man,  ungrateful  mai^ 
in  wanton  spite  of  all  his  boasted  reason,  robs  the 
Bee,  and  makes  her  life  the  forfeiture.  But  I  forbear, 
mm  is  uow  becoming  more  civilized ;  the  researches 
of  the  Apiarian  have  not  only  taught  him  how  to  share 
with  the  Bee  the  rich  rewards  of  her  toils,  without 
destroying  her  life,  or  even  abridging  her  enjoy- 
ments, but  how  to  promote  the  enjoyments  of  the 
Bee,  and  become  her  {protector. 

The  mouse,  of  all  kinds,  the  rat,  the  toad,  and  the 
ant,  are  amongst  the  common  enemies  of  the  Bee, 
The  attention  of  man,  in  fixing  his  Apiary,  may 
guard  the  Bee,  generally,  against  these  common  ene- 
mies;  but  birds,  which  also  are  generally  the  enemies 
of  the  Bee,  who  catch  him,  and  devour  him  in  his 
ilight,  are  out  of  the  reach  of  man,  and  generally  go 
unpunished  ;  except  the  king-bird  and  wood-pecker, 
who  hover  about  the  Apiary,  to  feed  on  the  Be6s, 
they  may  be  carefully  watched  and  destroyed.  The 
spider,  also,  is  an  enemy  to  the  Bee,  the  same  as  the 
bird,  not  to  feed  on  the  honey  like  the  mouse,  and 
the  ant,  but  to  entrap  the  Bee  in  his  web,  and  feed 
on  him.  The  spiders  enter  the  hive  when  the  wea- 
ther is  cold,  and  the  Bees  have  lost  their  energies, 
spin  their  web,  and  thus  obtain  their  prey.  The 
wasp  is,  also,  an  enemy  of  the  Bee ;  he  surveys  the 
hive  in  summer,  and  wherever  he  finds  a  crevice,  en- 
ters and  robs  the  hive,  and  feeds  on  the  honey.  The 
wasps  collectively,  sometimes  attack  weak  hives,  the 
same  as  robbing  Bees,  and  rob  the  swarm.  Mr. 
Huish  adds,  I  do  not  know  a  more  efficacious  method 
of  destroying  wasps'  nests  than  sulphur.  The  wasp, 
the  humble  Bee,  and  honey  Bee,  all  feed  upon  the 
same  food  ;  for  this  reason,  the  two  first  should  be 
driven  as  much  as  possible  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Apiary,  particularly  in  September  and  Octo- 
ber, when  the  herbage'of  the  fields  fails,  thev  then 
are  driven  by  hunger  to  rob  the  hives. 
.     Watch  your  Bees  close  at  this  season,  or  they  may 


THE    farmer's    manual.  i6cir 

be  ruined  before  you  are  aware,  and  thus  your  hopes 
of  the  season  be  blasted  in  autumn. 

The  toad  is  the  natural  enemy  of  Bees,  as  of  the 
wasp,  and  common  fly,  and  will  catch  them  indis- 
criminately, particularly  in  warm  weather.  He  should 
be  driven  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Apiary.  A  little 
garlic  rubbed  about  your  hives,  will  guard  them 
against  the  ravages  of  the  ant. 

The  moth  is  an  enemy  of  the  Bee.  It  is  the  ca- 
terpillar, which,  in  a  certain  state,  gnaws  our  trees, 
books,  paper,  &;c.  Strong  hives  can  protect  them- 
selves against  the  moth ;  but  weak  hives  are  some- 
times injured  and  ruined.  The  moth,  in  the  butterfly 
state,  infests  the  hives  in  April  and  October,  and  by 
her  dexterity  deposits  her  eggs  amongst  the  comb, 
and  dies.  From  every  egg  a  smooth  caterpillar 
bursts  forth  of  a  pale  white,  its  head  brown  and  sca- 
ly. It  encloses  itself  in  a  little  web  of  white  silk, 
which  it  attaches  to  the  combs,  and  in  which  it  finds 
its  food  by  projecting  its  head  beyond  its  case. 
When  the  food  around  it  begins  to  fail,  it  prolongs  its 
silken  web,  which,  though  a  mere  thread  at  the  be- 
ginning, becomes  almost  insensibly  as  large  as  a  quilL 
This  insect,  having  attained  its  growth,  submits  to  the 
metamorphosis  com^ion  to  all  caterpillars;  it  quits 
its  residence,  retires  to  one  corner  of  the  hive,  or  de- 
parts from  it ;  spins  a  white  covering,  emerges  as  a 
butterfly,  copulates  and  re-enters  the  hive  to  deposit 
its  eggs  as  before.  1  have  been  the  more  particular 
in  describing  this  insect,  because,  next  to  man,  he  is 
the  most  destructive  enemy  of  Bees.  Mr.  Huish 
states  with  confidence,  that  in  sixteen  years,  the  moth 
has  destroyed  more  than  a  fifth  part  of  his  hives  an- 
nually. Mr.  Huish  continues  the  subject  of  the  moth 
much  more  extensively,  both  as  to  its  manner  of 
laying  its  eggs,  in  and  out  of  the  hive,  and  the 
manner  by  which  they  are  introduced  carelessly  by 
the  Bees  into  the  hive,  where  they  are  hatched  with 
the  other  eggs;  the  substance  upon  which  the  moth 


166  THE  farmer's  manual, 

feeds  in  ihe  hive  when  grown,  &ic, ;  but  as  all  this  can- 
not be  of  great  importance,  I  pass  it  over,  and  notice 
the  practice  of  some  persons  who  surround  their 
Apiary  with  torches  in  the  evening,  in  order  to  de^ 
stroy  the  moth,  by  singing  his  wings,  together  with 
the  objection  to  this,  as  being  alike  destructive  to  the 
Bee,  who  will  be  drawn  out  upon  the  wing  by  the 
same  light  that  destroys  the  moth.  Mr.  Huish  thus 
concludes,  *^  A  remedy  against  this  insect  is  very  dif- 
ficult, and  the  only  advice  I  can  give  on  this  subject, 
is,  that  ivhenever  you  suspect  your  hives  are  devour- 
ing by  the  moth,  join  your  Bees  to  another  hive,  and 
thus  save  the  little  which  remains.  If  your  Bees 
become  inactive  when  other  swarms  are  at  work,  and 
continue  so  10  or  15  days;  no  time  is  to* be  lost  in 
examining  your  hive,  where  the  ravages  of  the  moth 
will  appear.  Save  your  Bees  if  possible  by  removal 
to  another  hive ;  all  their  labours  are  lost  in  that 
hive.'' 

The  death-head  spinx,  or  hawk-moth,  is  a  great 
butterfly,  and  belongs  also  to  the  family  of  phc^lenoe. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the  Bee  ; 
it  alarms  them  very  much,  and  sometimes  in  one 
night,  will  rob  a  hive  of  a  great  portion  of  its  store* 
This  butterfly  emits  a  sharp  and  plaintive  sound, 
which,  with  the  spot  on  its  breast,  rudely  representing 
a  death's  head,  give  rise  to  its  name.  It  feeds  on 
the  leaf  of  the  potatoe,  and  appears  in  the  month  of 
September.  It  is  confounded  with  the  bat,  because 
of  its  size,  and  of  its  flight  at  the  same  time.  As 
soon  as  the  Bees  perceive  its  approach,  they  are  al! 
in  commotion,  and  retreat  into  their  hive.  Mr.  Hu- 
ish notices  some  remarks  of  M.  Lomebard  upon  the 
curious  defensive  position  of  the  Bees,  by  way  of  se- 
curity against  this  enemy,  which  I  shall  pass  over, 
together  with  Mr.  Huber's  remarks  upon  the  same  vi 
sionary  scheme.  Mr.  Huish  notices  no  particular 
remedy  against  this  insect. 

The    Bear,    the   Fox,   and   the   Badger,  are   o- 


THE  farmer's  manual.  167 

ihe  enemies  of  Bees.  One  trait  of  sagacity  in 
the  Bear,  mentioned  by  the  Abbe  Delia  Rocca, 
deserves  some  liotice.  "  7'he  Bear  seldom  at- 
tacks a.  hive  openly,  from  fear  of  its  stings;  but 
he  will  in  the  most  gentle  manner  take  a  hive  ia 
his  paws  and  carry  it  out  to  the  first  river,  or  pond, 
and  plunge  it,  until  the  Bees  are  drowned,  and  then 
feed  on  the  spoil.  T'he  proprietors,  therefore,  in 
those  countries  infested  with  Bears,  attach  their  hives 
to  walls,  and  other  places,  for  their  security  against 
the  Bear.'' 

The  sparrow  and  the  lizard  are  also  enemies  of  the 
Bees,  and  must  be  carefully  watched. 

1  cannot  too  strongly  impress  it  upon  the  minds  of 
every  Apiarian,  who  wishes  to  reap  any  profit  from 
his  hives,  to  be  constantly  upon  the  alert,  to  effect 
the  destruction  of  those  enemies  by  which  his  pro- 
perty is  so  materially  injured.  Let  him  remember, 
they  carry  on  their  depredations  in  secret,  and  that 
in  this  instance,  as  well  as  in  every  relation  in  life,  a 
false  security,  is  the  most  dangerous  situation  in 
which  a  person  can  repose. 


CHAP.  VIII. 

On  ihe  Maladies  of  Bees. 

On  this  subject,  Mr.  Huish  acknowledges  great  dif- 
liculty,  both  in  discovering  the  maladies  of  the  Bee, 
and  the  remedies ;  but  adds,  if  you  have  many  hives 
and  any  one  becomes  sickly,  remove  it  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, that  it  may  not  infect  the  remainder.  If  you 
have  few  hives,  you  may  attempt,  first  to  investigate 
the  disease,  and  next  its  cure.  Mr.  Huish  states, 
that  the  dysentery  is  one  of  the  most  common  as  well 
as  fatal  diseases  of  the  Bee  ;  and  that  the  mark  of  this 
disease  is  the  excrement  voided   by  the   Bee  at  the 


iGB  THB  FARMER^S  MANUAL. 

entrance  of  the  hives,  in  spots,  like  linseed,  nearly 
black,  and  of  an  insupportable  smell,  and  that  this 
malady  is  contagious.  The  Bees  when  afflicted  with 
this  disease,  destroy  each  other  by  contaminating 
their  wings  with  this  excrement,  and  thus  stop  the 
organs  of  perspiration.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is 
by  some  ascribed  to  new  honey,  when  eat  in  winter ; 
by  some  to  the  deficiency  of  propolis,  or  bea-bread  ; 
and  by^others,  to  the  flowers  of  the  elm  and  lime,  from 
which  they  extract  their  honey.  These,  and  several 
other  causes,  have  been  named  by  various  writers ; 
but  they  do  not  appear  to  be  agreed  in  any  one  ge- 
neral cause  of  the  dysentery.  Many  remedies  have 
been  prescribed  by  various  authors,  for  the  dysente* 
ry ;  but,  adds  Mr.  Huish,  I  consider  it  incurable ;  al- 
though its  prevention  may  be  effected.  As  soon, 
therefore,  as  1  perceive  any  of  my  hives  affected  witb 
it,  I  give  them  a  little  of  the  following  composition, 
which  has  invariably  checked  the  malady,  when 
given  in  the  early  stages.  Rule,  To  a  quart  of  white 
wine,  add  a  pint  of  honey  and  two  pounds  of  loaf  su- 
gar ;  put  the  whole  into  a  tin  sauce-pan,  and  let  it  boil 
gently  over  a  slow  fire,  skimming  it  at  different  times, 
until  it  is  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  syrup.  It 
may  then  be  bottled,  and  put  into  the  cellar,  and 
kept  cool  for  use.  Whenever  it  is  used,  it  must  be 
gently  heated,  until  it  partakes  of  the  consistency  of 
honey.  Mr.  Ranconi,  an  Italian  author,  recommends 
fresh  urine,  placed  on  plates  near  the  hives,  for  the 
use  of  the  Bees.  He  also  recommends  white  wine 
boiled  with  an  equal  quantity  of  loaf  sugar,  with  an 
addition  of  cloves  and  nutmegs,  as  doing  well.  Also 
the  bark  of  pomegranates,  pounded  and  mixed  with 
honey  and  sweet  wine,  as  being  conducive  to  the 
health  of  the  Bee. 

Mr.  Duchet  recommends  good  old  port  wine,  n)ix- 
ed  with  honey. 

Mr.  Wildman  recommends  fine  salt,  as  a  remedy, 
to  be  placed  on  tli€  bee-Stand  where  they  may  eat  it 
at  pleasure. 


MANUAL.  169 

M.  Le  Abbe  Bienairae  recommends  oat-meal  in  the 
dysentery. 

Mr.  Huish  approves  of  all  these  remedies,  and 
adds,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  hives  as 
clean  as  possible  during  the  prevalence  of  the  dysen- 
tery amongst  your  Bees. 

Mr.  Huish  observes  that  the  antenna  of  the  Bee 
are  sometimes  diseased  and  turn  yellow,  attended 
with  some  swelling;  but  considers  the  disease  as 
slight.  He  also  notices  that  Bees  sometimes  have 
the  vertigo,  for  which  no  remedy  had  been  discover- 
ed 5  but  this  was  never  general  in  hives,  and  not  ve- 
ry serious  in  its  consequences  in  the  swarms. 

The  abortive  brood,  although  not  an  epidemical 
disorder,  is  still  very  injurious  in  its  effects  upon  the 
Bees.  Two  causes  produce  this  effect;  1.  When 
the  Bees  have  given  the  larva  improper  food ;  2. 
When  the  worm  is  placed  in  the  cell  with  the  tail  to- 
wards its  mouth.  In  this  case,  the  young  Bees,  inca- 
pable of  extrication,  die  and  putrify.  The  Bees  ge- 
nerally remedy  the  evils  of  this  putrefaction,  by  re^ 
moving  the  abortive  brood  ;  but  should  this  accident 
take  place  in  winter,  the  infected  combs  may  be  cut 
out  when  the  hives  are  examined  in  the  spring.  The 
tops  of  the  cells,  when  sound,  are  convex  and  yellow- 
ish ;  when  abortive,  concave  and  blackish. 


CHAP.  IX. 

On  the  Brood. 

Having  described  the  origin  of  the  Bees,  the  na- 
tural  constitution  of  the  queen,  and  of  the  drones,  I 
now  proceed  to  treat  of  their  brood.  By  the  brood, 
we  understand  the  three  different  states  of  the  eggs, 
worm  and  nymph,  and  it  is  on  these  states,  that  the 
prosperity,  the  conservation,  and  multiplication  of  the 

15 


170        THE  farmer's  manual. 

Bees  depend,  for  the  establishment  of  the  new  colpniesc 
In  the  chapter  entitled,  Enemies  of  the  Bees^  may  be 
seen  what  a  field  of  destruction  constantly  awaits  this 
most  valuable  insect,  from  their  common  enemies  ;  but 
the  accidents,  or  casualties  of  life,  together  with  the 
common  diseases  of  the  Bees,  open  another  extensive 
field  of  mortality  for  their  destruction,  so  that,  whe- 
ther at  home  or  abroad,  asleep  or  awake,  the  Bee 
may  truly  be  said  to  be  in  the  midst  of  death :  all 
this  is  highly  to  be  regretted  by  the  friends  of  the 
Bee.  To  counteract  these  evils  of  extermination 
which  surround  the  Bee,  nature  has  rendered  them 
vastly  prolific,  and  fixed  in  their  breasts  an  indisso- 
luble bond  of  union.  Their  broods  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  they,  like  the  Chinese,  never  emigrate,  by 
deserting  their  swarms  ;  when  a  swarm  is  once  form- 
ed, they  never  dissolve  by  desertion. 

I  have  noticed  that  the  Brood  all  spring  from  the 
eggs  which  the  queen  Bee  deposits  in  the  cells,  and 
that  their  number  always  corresponds  to  the  exact 
number  of  cells.  These  eggs  are  broad  at  one  end, 
and  pointed  at  the  other ;  at  the  end  of  three  days 
ihey  are  hatched,  and  a  worm  appears  at  the  bottom 
of  the  cell.  In  this  state,  it  is  termed  larva,  and  re- 
tains one  position  in  the  form  of  a  ring,  without  mo- 
tion, yet  replete  with  life.  At  the  end  of  five  or  six 
days,  it  envelops  itself  in  a  whitish  silken  film,  and 
changes  into  a  chrysalis.  In  this  state,  it  is  called  a 
nymph.  These  wonderful  changes  are  common  to 
all  classes  of  the  fly,  as  well  as  the  Bee,  and  take 
their  rank  amongst  the  mysteries  of  nature.  ''  The 
Bee  in  its  state  of  nymph  is  enveloped  in  a  pellicle, 
so  delicate  and  fine,  that  its  six  legs  may  be  distinct- 
ly seen  arranged  under  its  belly,  and  its  proboscis 
bent,  in  its  whole  length.  The  Bee  in  this  state  is 
white ;  in  the  sequel,  all  the  parts  of  the  body  gra- 
dually become  covered,  and  insensibly  develop  them- 
selvesj  and  become  perfect  on  the  21st  to  the  23d 
day.     The  drone  takes   its  flight  generally   on   th^ 


i'HE    FARMER^S    MANUAL,  171 

27th;  the  queen  about  the  16th.  These  develop 
ments  are  slowest  in  small  swarms,  or  in  temperate 
seasons,  and  are  suspended  during  the  cold  weather* 
The  young  Bee  makes  use  of  its  teeth  to  liberate  it- 
self from  its  prison,  and  to  break  the  envelope  ;  this  is 
an  operation  very  difficult  to  the  young  Bees,  and 
cannot  be  effected  by  all.  The  Bees,  like  all  other 
animals,  express  great  affection  for  their  young,  un- 
til they  are  come  to  maturity  to  support  themselves, 
they  then  become  indifferent.  As  soon  as  the  young 
Bee  obtains  the  use  of  his  wings,  he  flits  away  into 
the  fields,  and  commences  the  labours  of  the  swarm: 
the  old  Bees  proceed  immediately  to  cleanse  out 
the  cells  they  have  left,  by  removing  the  film,  &c. 
and  thus  prepare  them  for  eggs  again,  or  honey." 

The  Bees  are  irascible,  directly  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  brood  in  the  hive,  and  at  this  time, 
they  should  not  be  disturbed  ;  when  the  brood  dimi- 
nishes, their  agitation  subsides,  and  when  it  comes  to 
maturity,  they  become  tranquil  again. 

Mr.  Huish  enters  into  an  elaborate  discussion  of 
the  question,  whether  any  food  is  administered  to 
the  brood  when  in  the  state  of  larva,  as  is  questioned 
by  some ;  and  if  any,  whether  it  be  pure  honey,  or  ho- 
ney and  farina,  as  is  the  opinion  of  others  ;  but  as  he 
concludes  with  this  remark,  ''  the  truth  cannot  be  po- 
sitively ascertained,"  and  then  assumes  a  decision,  by 
way  of  analogy  from  the  butterfly  and  other  insects^ 
I  shall  wave  that  part  of  his  discussion,  and  enter  up- 
on the  next  chapter. 


CHAP.  X. 

On  the  Combs  of  the  Bee, 

immediately  when  a  swarm  of  Bees  take  posses- 
,>iQn  of  a  hive,   they  begin  to  clear  and  cleanse  it 


i72  THE  farmer's   manual. 

from  all  obstructions  ;  even  the  ends  of  straws  that 
project  in  the  interior  of  a  new  straw  hive,  are  all 
removed,  and  often  with  great  trouble.  To  remedy 
this,  every  new  hive  should  be  smoked,  and  cleansed, 
and  rubbed  with  a  stiff  brush,  until  it  is  quite  smooth, 
before  it  is  presented  for  the  use  of  the  swarm. 

It  is  universally  admitted  by  all  Apiarians,  that  the 
Bees  employ  no  other  substance  for  the  foundation 
of  their  combs  than  propolis,  although  the  ancients, 
even  Pliny,  has  furnished  them  with  two  others 
of  an  unctuous,  pithy  nature,  more  adhesive  than 
propolis.  On  leaving  the  parent  hive,  the  young 
swarm  are  provided  with  all  the  requisites  for  their 
new  labours,  with  food  for  several  days;  and  when 
they  take  possession  of  their  new  habitation,  their 
activity  and  order  are  truly  striking.  Some  cleanse 
the  hive,  others  close  up  every  crevice  where  the 
light  can  penetrate,  others  construct  the  combs,  whilst 
others  repair  to  the  fields,  and  collect  the  necessary 
materials ;  thus  all  is  action  and  order,  amidst  the 
busy  hum. 

The  Bee  always  begins  her  labours  at  the  top  of 
the  hive,  and  generally  in  the  middle ;  thus  they  lay 
their  foundation  for  the  deposit  of  the  eggs  of  the 
queen,  around  which  they  construct  the  cells  for  the 
reception  of  honey,  and  the  whole  fabric  hangs  sus- 
pended in  air.  They  attach  their  combs  with  such  a 
viscous  glue,  that  they  are  always  firm,  and  were 
never  known  to  fail ;  and  to  diminish  as  much  as 
possible  the  weight  of  their  edifice,  they  give  the 
least  possible  thickness  to  their  cells;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  they  strengthen  the  entrance  of  their 
cells  by  a  border  of  wax ;  this  part  being  most  ex- 
posed to  suffer  from  use.  This  border,  also,  serves 
to  assist  in  retaining  the  honey,  and  thus  discloses 
the  fact,  that  the  Bee  possesses  a  perfect  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  fluids  ;  by  the  assistance  of  this  bor- 
der, the  eel!  can  be  filled  with  honey  even  to  a  con- 
vex form,  and  thus  being  covered  by  a  pellicle  of  wax. 


THE  farmer's  manual.        17S 

may  be  secured  for  winter  against  the  eftects  of  the 
moisture. 

The  Bees  construct  several  cells  at  a  time,  parallel 
with  each  other,  all  attached  to  the  roof  of  the  hive^ 
and  perpendicular  to  its  base.  The  spaces  between 
the  combs  are  always  sufficiently  wide  for  two  Bees 
to  pass  freely,  these  are  the  streets  of  their  city  ; 
perpendicular,  not  horizontal.  Every  comb  is  com- 
posed of  a  double  row  of  cells,  which  are  placed 
back  to  back,  having  one  common  base,  and  their 
figure  is  an  exact  hexagon.  Pappus,  the  famous  geo- 
metrician of  antiquity,  demonstrated  that  this  figure 
possesses  the  double  advantage  of  filling  a  space,  with- 
out leaving  any  vacuum,  and  of  enclosing  the  largest 
space  in  the  same  circumference ;  and  it  is  most 
wonderful,  that  the  Bees  have  chosen,  amongst  an  al- 
most infinity  of  figures,  the  only  one  which  could  ex- 
actly fulfil  the  essential  conditions  to  which  their  na- 
ture restricted  them.  The  figure  of  the  base  is  a 
pyramid  of  three  lozenges,  formed  perfectly  equal. 
The  four  angles  of  these  lozenges  are  again  so  hap- 
pily combined,  and  their  opening  is  in  such  propor- 
tion, that  the  wax  is  used  with  the  greatest  possible 
economy,  and  in  such  a  manner,  that  any  other  lo- 
zenge composed  of  any  other  size,  would  not  yield 
the  same  results.  Samuel  Koenig,  who  made  use  of 
the  analysis  of  infinite  units,  to  resolve  this  problem, 
v/hich  was  given  him  by  M.  Beaumur,  arrived,  after 
all  his  calculations,  at  the  mere  result  furnished  him 
by  the  Bees.  The  choice  of  the  figure  is,  however, 
not  surpassed  by  the  astonishing  manner  in  which 
they  construct  all  the  sides  of  the  hexagons,  all  the 
lozenges  of  their  bases,  and  all  the  angles  of  the  lo- 
zenges. The  thickness  of  each  of  the  combs  is  ra- 
ther indefinite ;  it  may,  however,  be  stated  in  the  ag- 
gregate at  one  inch,  the  upper  is,  however,  generally 
larger.  The  depth,  then,  of  each  cell,  is  about  half 
an  inch,  and  the  breadth  is  constantly  two  lines,  two 
fifths,  invariably,  the  world  over,  wherever  Bees  arc 

15'' 


^'^4  THE    farmer's    manual* 

known.  Indepenrlently  of  the  kind  of  cells  which 
are  the  most  numerous,  others  are  constructed  of  a 
size  rather  larger,  which  are  appropriated  to  the  re- 
ception of  the  eggs  from  which  the  drones  are  to 
spring.  The  Bees,  in  the  construction  of  the  cell|, 
regard  particularly  these  two  combinations,  that  if 
the  size,  and  the  number  of  Bees  to  be  produced,  or 
generated.  The  cells  of  the  drones  differ  in  their 
depth  and  breadth,  but  they  have  in  general  a  regular 
diameter,  which  is  three  lines  and  a  half;  from  which 
it  appears  that  twenty  of  the  drone  cells  would  cover 
a  space  of  five  inches,  ten  lines,  whilst  twenty  cells 
of  the  working  Bees  cover  a  space  of  exactly  four 
inches.  All  this  labour  is  performed  with  so  much 
skill  and  firmness,  that  three  or  four  of  these  sides 
placed  on  each  other  do  not  exceed  the  thickness  of 
common  paper.  A  different  species  of  cell  is  also 
constructed,  destined  to  be  the  cradle  of  the  queens. 
The  architects  now  abandon  their  ordinary  form  of 
building,  and  construct  the  cells  of  a  circular  and 
oblong  figure,  which  possess  much  solidity.  One  of 
these  cells  will  weigh  as  much  as  100  or  160  of  the 
common  cells.  There  is  less  economy  used  in  their 
construction  ;  the  wax  is  used  with  more  profusion  ; 
the  exterior  is  waved  ;  in  fine,  they  are  really  royal 
cells.  They  are  trifling  in  number  compared  with 
the  other  cells. 

A  piece  of  honey-comb  is  one  of  the  wonders  of 
art,  produced  by  the  powers  of  instinct,  and  may  be 
considered  as  a  masterpiece  of  nature.  Even  man 
himself,  with  all  his  boasted  reason,  must  bow  with 
profound  deference  to  the  superior  industry,  econo- 
my, sagacity,  political  harmony,  and  order  of  the  Bee. 


CHAP.  XI. 

On  the  particular  substances  which  are  found  in  a  hive. 

In  the  front  rank  of  these  substances,  stands  pro- 
polis j  for  with  this,  they  stop  all  the  crevices  of  the 


THE    FARMER^S    MANUAL.  17o 

hive,  to  exclude  both  air  and  light,  and  with  this, 
they  attach  their  cells  to  the  surface  of  the  hive. 
Propolis  is  a  resinous  substance,  soluble  in  spirits 
of  wine,  and  oil  of  turpentine ;  in  this  state,  it  is  an 
excellent  substitute  for  the  varnish  which  is  used  in 
giving  the  colour  of  gold  to  silver,  or  to  tin,  made 
into  tinfoil.  It  is  very  useful  to  expedite  the  matu- 
rity of  abscesses;  its  vapour,  when  in  a  consuming 
state,  gives  great  relief  to  coughs,  if  inhaled  into  the 
lungs.  Crude  wax,  or  bee-bread,  is  the  next  sub- 
stance worthy  of  notice ;  this  is  the  farina  of  plants, 
collected  by  the  Bees,  for  the  various  purposes  of 
the  hive,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  elements  of  wax. 
Farina,  also,  forms  the  chief  element  of  propolis,  by  a 
process  which  it  passes  through  in  the  stomach  of  the 
Bees  ;  yet  propolis  is  not  wax,  although  very  similar, 
because  propolis  is  much  more  glutinous  and  fra- 
grant than  wax.  Propolis  has  been  analyzed  by 
M.  Vauquelin  in  the  Anals  De  Chimie,  1802,  and 
1818,  and  in  the  Bulletin  de  Pharmacie,  by  M.  Ca- 
det. By  distilation,  a  very  sweet  essential  oil  is  ob- 
tained;  if  it  be  placed  on  burning  coals,  it  emits  an 
odour  similar  to  that  of  aloes ;  it  mollifies,  and  in 
this  state,  it  cannot  be  broken  until  it  is  stretched  to 
the  fineness  of  a  thread.  M.  Lombard  says,  *'  That 
a  perfect  ignorance  prevails,  regarding  the  matter  of 
which  propolis  is  made,  or  whence  the  Bees  extract 
it." 


CHAP,  XII. 

On  Pollen^  or  Farina. 

Botanists  designate  by  the  term  pollen,  or  farina, 
that  fecundating  dust  which  hangs  on  the  stamina  of 
all  flowers,  and  which  the  Bees  collect  and  transport 
to  their  hives,  in  iiHle  balls,  or  pellets,  attached  tQ 


176  THE  FARMER'S  MANUAL. 

the  cavities  of  their  hinder  legs.  The  Bee  roams 
from  flower  to  flower  in  quest  of  this  substance,  and 
never  quits  the  species  of  flower  on  which  she  first 
alights,  until  she  has  collected  her  load,  and  returned 
with  it  to  her  hive,  where  she  is  unburthened  of  her 
load,  by  the  attending  labourers.  This  is  performed 
with  their  teeth,  and  the  treasure  deposited  in  a  cell, 
and  pressed  close  with  their  hinder  feet.  This  pol- 
len, or  farina,  is  placed  at  the  bottoms  of  the  cells, 
until  they  are  about  half  full,  and  then  covered  with 
honey  until  the  cell  is  filled  ;  this  secures  the  pollen 
from  both  air  and  moisture  ;  and  thus,  by  their  won- 
derful sagacity,  they  screen  their  food  from  the  tivo 
elements,  which,  if  they  found  access  to  it,  would 
sour  and  destroy  it.  This  perishable  property  in 
farina,  shows,  also,  that  it  is  not  wax,  although  it  is 
the  substance  from  which  wax  is  made,  for  wax  is 
imperishable,  either  from  air,  or  water  ;  wax  is  solu- 
ble with  heat,  pollen  is  not;  wax  will  float  on  water, 
but  pollen  sinks  in  water;  all  these  particulars  show, 
that  pollen  is  not  wax,  yet  all  Apiarians -are  agreed, 
that  wax  is  the  result  of  certain  operations  which 
pollen  undergoes  by  the  management  of  the  Bees, 
yet,  they  are  not  agreed  how  this  is  performed  ;  the 
Bee  has  never  disclosed  the  secret,  and  probably 
never  will.  All  are  agreed,  that  farina  is  converted 
into  wax,  by  the  mouth  of  the  Bee,  and  many,  that 
the  digestine  powers  of  the  stomach  are  brought  into 
action  to  aid  the  process  ;  but,  even  here,  all  becomes 
conjecture  again,  and  the  question  is  left  as  undeter- 
mined, as  how  the  leaf  of  the  mulberry  is  converted 
into  silk,  by  the  mouth  and  stomach  of  the  silk-worm  ; 
so  much  behind  the  curtain,  and  so  concealed  from 
the  research  of  man,  are  these  two  useful,  common 
and  valuable  operations  of  nature.  The  use  of  pol- 
len as  food  for  the  Bees,  and  more  particularly  for 
the  broods,  may  be  illustrated  more  fully  by  the  fol- 
lowing fact.  '*  Mr.  Huber  had  a  stock  of  Bees  in  a 
glass    hive,   with   twelve   partitions;    the   queen   of 


THE  farmer's  manual*  177 

which  was  barren.  The  cells  were  destitute  of  pollen, 
and  possessed  some  honey.  On  the  16th  of  July,  he 
removed  the  queen,  as  well  as  all  the  partitions,  ex- 
cepting the  1st  and  12th  combs,  the  cells  of  which  were 
occupied  with  eggs  and  larva,  of  all  ages ;  the  cells 
in  which  pollen  were  perceived,  were  cut  out,  and 
the  hive  was  closed  again  with  a  grate.  On  the  1 7th, 
the  Bees  appeared  to  tend  their  young;  on  the  18th, 
after  sunset,  a  great  noise  was  heard  in  the  hive ;  the 
shutters  were  opened,  and  it  was  remarked,  that  the 
whole  community  was  in  a  tumult;  the  brood  combs 
were  abandoned;  the  Bees  gnawed  the  gratings  of 
their  enclosure,  and  were  set  at  liberty.  Night  soon 
compelled  them  to  return  to  their  combs,  order  was 
restored,  and  the  hive  was  closed  as  formerly.  On 
the  19th,  the  sketch  of  two  equal  cells,  was  seen  dis- 
tinctly. At  evening,  as  before,  the  Bees  recommenc- 
ed their  tumult,  and  were  let  loose,  and  again  return- 
ed to  the  hive  as  before,  and  it  was  closed.  On  the 
20th,  being  the  5th  day  of  their  captivity,  the  brood 
was  examined,-  in  order  to  discover  the  cause  of  this 
periodical  agitation  of  the  Bees ;  the  hive  was  car- 
ried into  a  chamber,  the  windows  of  which  were 
closed,  the  Bees  were  set  at  liberty,  and  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  royal  cells  had  not  been  continued ; 
not  a  single  egg,  nor  larva,  were  to  be  found  ;  all 
had  disappeared ;  the  larva  had  perished  from  hun- 
ger. Can  this  be  supposed  to  arise  from  any  other 
cause  than  the  absence  of  pollen  ?  To  ascertain  this 
fact,  it  was  only  necessary  to  carry  them  some  pol- 
len, and  observe  the  result.  For  this  purpose  the 
Bees  were  restored  to  their  prison,  after  having  sub- 
stituted new  combs,  containing  eggs  and  young  lar- 
va, in  the  place  of  those  which  had  perished.  On 
the  22d,  the  observation  was  made,  that  the  Bees  had 
fastened  their  combs,  and  fixed  themselves  on  the 
new  brood  ;  some  fragments  of  comb  were  then  given 
them,  in  which  some  other  Bees  had  stored  some  pol- 
len, and  they   were  placed  openly  on  the  stand  of 


178  THE  farmer's  manual. 

the  hive.  In  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  the  Bees 
partook  of  the  pollen,  devoured  it  greedily,  attached 
themselves  to  the  cells  of  the  young  larva,  into 
which  they  entered  head  foremost,  and  remained  in 
them  for  a  greater  or  less  time.  The  hive  was  gent- 
ly raised,  and  the  Bees  which  devoured  the  pollen 
were  powdered,  and  it  was  observed  that  the  Bees 
which  were  powdered  returned  to  the  pollen,  and 
then  again  repaired  to  the  brood,  and  entered  into 
the  cells  of  the  larva.  On  the  23d,  the  royal  cells 
were  begun.  On  the  24th,  it  was  observed  that  all 
the  larva  had  some  mucous  matter  upon  them,  that 
some  of  the  cells  had  been  lately  closed,  and  that 
the  royal  cells  had  been  elongated.  On  the  26th, 
two  royal  cells  had  been  closed  during  the  night.  On 
the  27th,  full  liberty  was  given  to  the  Bees  ;  the  mu- 
cous matter  was  still  found  in  the  cells,  which  con- 
tained larva,  and  a  greater  number  had  been  closed 
with  a  covering  of  wax,  and  on  opening  several  of 
them,  the  larva  were  found  spinning  their  cocoon. 
After  this  experiment,  no  further  doubt  can  be  enter- 
tained, that  the  pollen  was  the  food  of  the  young 
Bees,  and  it  was  the  deficiency  of  this  substance  that 
caused  their  death,  and  the  evident  agitation  of  the 
Bees.,  during  their  former  captivity." 


CHAP.   XIII. 

On  Wax. 

We  have  before  observed,  that  propolis  is  not 
wax,  neither  is  pollen,  wax  ;  but  that  both  form  the 
basis  of  wax,  through  the  operations  of  the  Bees, 
which  are  inexplicable  to  us.  The  great  variety  of 
sentiment  upon  this  subject,  began  as  early  as  the 
days  of  Ari'^totle,  and  continues  down  to  our  times, 
and   will  most  probably  continue.     Messrs.  Hubci 


MANUAL.  179 

and  Blondelu,  have  both  attempted  to  show  from  ex- 
periments which  appeared  satisfactory  to  them,  that 
the  Bees  produced  wax  from  honey  only.  M.  Bon- 
net and  M.  Duchet  have  attempted  to  show,  that  the 
Avax  of  the  Bee  is  only  an  exudation  of  honey  from 
the  stomach  of  the  Bee,  and  the  scales  of  the  body ; 
and  they  cite  as  proof,  the  small  particles  of  wax  found 
on  these  parts  of  the  body  of  the  Bee.  M.  Ber- 
nard de  Jussieu,  a  man  of  science,  has  undertaken  to 
show  that  wax  forms  a  constituent  part  of  farina,  or 
pollen,  by  swelling  the  seeds  of  pollen  in  water  until 
they  burst,  and  disclosed  an  unctuous  matter,  which 
constitutes  the  wax  of  the  Bee  ;  also,  that  aromatic 
trees  and  shrubs,  exude  from  their  pores,  foliage  and 
flowers,  an  unctuous  matter,  which  is  the  genuine  wax 
of  the  Bee.  Instances  of  the  wax-tree  in  Louisiana, 
and  Carolina,  are  cited ;  but  as  these  are  wholly  ir- 
relevant, I  shall  pass  them  over,  and  conclude  as  be- 
fore, that  the  modus  operandi  of  the  Bee  in  forming 
her  wax,  has  never  been  discovered.  The  reality  of 
bees-wax,  its  utility  in  common  life,  its  advantages 
in  commerce,  &:c.  are  familisr  to  all,  and  within  the 
limits  of  almost  every  member  of  the  agricultural 
community  to  partake  of  its  benefits,  both  for  public 
and  private  use  ;  and  it  is  with  a  special  reference  to 
these  benefits,  that  1  have  been  induced  to  mak^ 
these  extracts  public. 


CHAP.  XIV. 

On  Honey, 

This  interesting  chapter  not  only  embraces  the 
subject  of  honey  as  the  essential  and' component  part 
of  all  plants,  as  well  as  the  food  of  Bees,  and  the  luxu- 
ry of  man  ;  but  also  the  subject  of  the  honey-dew 
which  has  so  much  excited  the  speculations,  and  in- 


t80  THK  farmer's  manual. 

quiry  of  the  curious,  as  well  as  of  all  classes  of  socie- 
ty.    I  shall  quote  this  chapter  at  large,  and  give  full 
scope  to  the  reasonings  of  the  writers,  for  the  pur- 
poses  of  general  instruction.     "  Honey  is  a  gum- 
my, saccharrine,  fermentative  substance,  and  the  im- 
mediate principle  of  all  vegetation,  without  distinction. 
This  elementary  substance  appears  destined  to  the 
nourishment  of  all  plants,  and   particularly  in  their 
infancy,  in  the  same  manner  as  milk  is  destined  to 
the  nourishment  of  the  young  viviparous  animals.     It 
is  found  in  all  flowers,  but  principally   in  the  single 
ones  ;  its  presence  is  afterwards  perceived  in  all  fruits; 
it  shows  itself  in  the  humble  flowers  of  our  meadows,  in 
the  ears  of  corn  in  our  fields,  and  in  the  leaves  of  the 
trees.     It  exists  in  the   roots,  as  well  as  in  the  body 
and  bark  of  all  vegetables  ;  it  exudes  from  the  trunks  of 
trees  ;  finally,  it  appears  to  be  the  soul  an-d  vital  prin- 
ciple of  all  plants.      On   losing   this  principle,  the 
plants  generally  decay,  and   it  is  the  period  of  their 
existence.     Even  the  aliments  of  the  human    body 
are  impregnated  with  this   fluid,  and  the  Bees  know 
how  to  obtain  it  from  almost  every   substance.     It  is 
vStill,  however,  but  a  gummy,  saccharrine  substance, 
which  must  pass  into  the  stomach  of  the  Bees  before 
it   is  converted  into   honey.     As   the  productions  of 
nature  are  infinitely  varied,   so  the  honey,  its  consist- 
ency, taste  and  colour,  vary  according  to  the  produc- 
tions of  each  country.     The  same  species  of  flowers 
yield  a  different  kind  of  honey  according  to  the  dis- 
tricts, and  the  greater  or  less  humidity  of  the  season. 
Even  honey   of  different  qualities   is   extracted  from 
the  same  hive :  that  in    the  cells,  in  which  there  has 
been  no  brood,  is  less  acrid  ;  the  honey  of  the  swarm 
is  superior  to  that  which  has  been  exposed  for  one  year 
to  the  vapours  of  the  hive  ;  and  the  honey  of  the  spring 
is  superior  to  that  of  autumn.     The  honey  extracted 
from  flowers  is  the  nectar  which   they  enclose,  and 
which  was  so  much  boasted  of  by   the  ancients,  who 
formed  from  it  tlie  celestial  beverage  of  their  gods^ 


THE  farmer's  manual.  181 

to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  ambrosia.  Honey 
is  particularly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  circulation  of  the 
sap  at  the  return  of  spring.  Like  the  other  produc- 
tions of  the  Bee,  Naturalists  have  differed  as  to  the 
origin  of  honey.  Some  moderns,  led  away  by  vul- 
gar opinion,  have  thought  that  honey  is  a  moisture 
in  the  air,  or  a  dew  which  falls  upon  the  flowers  and 
leaves  of  trees,  and  no  where  else.  It  is  not  a  diffi- 
cult matter  to  convince  those  persons  of  their  er- 
ror, who  ought,,  in  the  first  place,  to  consider,  that 
dew  and  rain  are  very  injurious  to  honey,  as  they  di- 
lute it,  and  prevent  the  Bees  from  finding  it.  It  is  on 
a  close  and  sultry  day  that  the  Bees  find  the  richest 
harvest  of  honey.  If  dew  were  the  principle  of  it, 
the  Bees  would  find  it  indiscriminately  upon  all  flow- 
ers and  vegetables  ;  this  is  not  the  case,  as  confirmed 
by  experience;  and  besides,  how  many  flowers  are 
there,  which  being  in  themselves  fertile  in  honey,  and 
having  an  horizontal  or  perpendicular  inclination 
to  the  earth,  consequently  do  not  allow  the  dew  to 
be  received  into  their  orifices.  It  is,  therefore,  most 
consistent  with  reason  and  experience  to  suppose, 
that  the  honey-dew  is  an  exudation  of  the  vegetables 
themselves,  or  a  sensible  transpiration  of  that  sweet 
and  mellifluous  juice,  which,  having  circulated  in  the 
different  parts  of  certain  vegetables,  separates  itself, 
and  bursts  quite  unprepared,  either  at  the  bottoms  of 
flowers,  or  at  the  upper  parts  of  the  leaves,  and  in 
some  plants  appears  in  great  abundance.  The  pri- 
mary destination  of  this  mellifluous  liquid,  or  honey- 
dew,  appears  to  be  the  nourishment  of  the  fruit  in  its 
infancy.  But  an  objection  here  presents  itself;  why 
are  the  male  flowers,  which  never  produce  fruit,  also 
provided  with  this  honey  ?  Linneus  himself  was 
aware  of  this  objection,  and  could  not  solve  it  to  his 
satisfaction.  The  utility  of  honey  to  the  flowers^ 
and  the  reason  of  its  being  accorded  to  them  by  the 
Author  of  nature,  are  but  imperfectly  known  to  us. 
No  Botanist  has  as  yet  given  a  direct  aad  convincing 

16 


iS^  THE    farmer's    manual, 

elucidation  of  it,  nor  has  demonstrated  either  ii3 
destination  or  utility,  in  the  vegetable  economy  of 
flowers.  On  this  account,  the  solution  of  this  question 
appears  to  be  wholly  abandoned  to  the  researches  of 
our  successors.  From  the  supposition  that  honey 
transpires  from  the  plaiits  and  trees,  by  the  action 
and  admixture  of  heat  and  humidity,  our  surprise 
need  not  be  great  to  find  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  nec- 
tarium  of  the  flower,  which  is  the  proximate  part  to 
the  bark  or  peel,  and  it  may,  therefore,  be  easily  con- 
ceived, why,  in  certain  days,  it  is  abundant,  in  others, 
scarce;  because  it  follows  the  motion,  more  or  less 
strong,  of  the  sap.  Also,  why  certain  vegetables  sup- 
ply a  greater  quantity  than  others ;  because  they  are 
more  favoured  with  a  soft  humidity,  and  are  more 
abundant  in  sap.  Why  the  honey  possesses  quali- 
ties so  various  in  different  climates :  from  the  diver- 
sity of  the  vegetables.  Why  the  cold  rains,  north 
winds,  frost  and  snow,  are  unfavourable  to  honey  ; 
because  they  impede  the  circulation  of  the  sap.  Why 
this  mellifluous  liquid  can  abound  without  dew,  pro- 
vided the  sap  circulates  freely  ;  why,  with  an  ardent 
sun,  the  harvest  of  honey  can  be  great,  when  the  ve- 
getables are  full  of  humid  juices,  and  why,  during  ex- 
cessive heat,  honey  is  scarce  ;  because,  from  the  avi- 
•  dity  of  the  soil,  all  the  vegetable  juices  are  checked 
in  their  circulation.  It  is  evident  there  are  two  kinds 
of  honey,  the  one  contained  in  the  nectarium  of  flow- 
ers, and  the  other  an  exudation  on  the  leaves  of  trees. 
The  oak  and  the  laurel,  are  particularly  abundant  ia 
the  latter,  and  on  the  first  view,  it  appears  paradox- 
ical, that  the  juice  of  a  plant  which  is  so  very  dele- 
terious should  produce  an  exudation  of  a  saccharine 
and  wholesome  nature.  This  circumstance  has  been 
one  great  ground  on  which  certain  persons  found 
their  argument,  that  the  saccharine  matter  observed 
on  the  laurel,  cannot  possibly  be  an  exudation  from 
the  plant,  but  must  have  fallen  upon  it  in  some  other 
shape.     The  homogeneousness  of  this  liquid,  is  an- 


THE 


MANUAL.  183 


Other  argument  against  its  being  an  exudation,  un- 
less it  can  be  proved  that  the  sap  of  all  plants  is  ho- 
mogeneous, and  this  1  believe  the  most  hardy  dispu- 
tant will  not  attempt  to  do.  It  is  certain  that  the 
most  credible  writers  on  this  subject,  men  of  science 
and  knowledge,  have  maintained  that  they  have  ac- 
tually witnessed  the  fall  of  this  honey-dew ;  and  Mr. 
Ducarne,  one  of  the  most  intelligent  of  those  writers, 
thus  expresses  himself  upon  the  subject." 

''  You  know  what  that  honey  is  which  the  Bees 
collect  with  so  much  ardour  in  the  flowers,  but  you 
do  not  know,  perhaps,  that  there  are  two  kinds  ;  one, 
which  is  the  real  honey,  is  a  juice  of  the  earth,  which, 
proceeding  from  the  plants  by  transpiration,  is  col- 
lected at  the  bottom  of  the  nectarium  of  the  flowers, 
and  is  thickened  afterwards  ;  it  is,  in  other  words,  a 
digested  and  refined  sap  in  the  tribes  of  plants  ;  the 
other,  which  is  called  the  honey-dev/,  is  an  effect  of 
the  air,  or  a  species  of  gluey  dew,  which  falls  earlier 
or  later,  but  generally  during  the  dog*days.  This 
dew,  lights  upon  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  plants  and 
trees;  but  the  heat  operating  upon  it,  coagulates  and 
thickens  it,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  honey 
which  falls  on  the  flowers,  is  preserved  a  much  longer 
time.  It  is  said  that  an  abundance  of  this  dew  ren- 
ders the  Bees  idle,  and  makes  them  careless  of  col- 
lecting the  common  honey  from  the  nectarium  of  the 
flowers.  1  however,  never  saw  them  collect  it,  but 
upon  the  flowers.  One  great  disadvantage,  there- 
fore, of  this  honey-dew  is,  that  if  the  season  be  fog- 
gy and  moist,  and  especially  if  attended  with  small 
rain,  this  rain,  or  the  too  great  humidity  of  the  air, 
corrupts  it,  and  forms  a  composition  very  inferior  to 
the  honey  of  the  first  species,  or  to  that  which  has 
not  undergone  this  adulteration.  Those  persons  who 
have  not  viewed  the  honey-dew  fall,  as  I  have  done, 
assert,  that  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  juice,  or  sap 
of  the  plants,  which,  in  hot  weather,  experiences  per- 
hiips  a  greater  fermentation,  by  which  it  is  forced 


i84  THE    farmer's    MANUAl.. 

through  the  leaves.  In  contradiction  to  this,  I  assert, 
that  it  is  perceived  much  better  in  the  morning,  be- 
fore the  sun  has  been  able  to  dry  and  harden  it. 
These  persons  are,  however,  deceived.  I  have  not 
only  seen  this  honey-dew  fall  a  hundred  times  in 
small  rain  on  the  leaves  of  the  ash,  but  I  have  also 
shown  it  to  others,  and  the  globules  were  most  dis- 
tinctly to  be  perceived."  Mr.  Huish  objects  to  this 
bold  assertion,  that  honey-dew  never  appears  in 
moist  weather,  and  is  the  result  only  of  sultry  heats : 
and  adds,  I  have  long  adhered  to  the  opinion,  that  the 
honey-dew  dispersed  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  was 
only  an  exudation,  although  the  globules  scarcely 
bore  any  resemblance  in  form  to  each  other,  but 
w^ere  rather  in  imitation  a  species  of  rain.  On  exa- 
mining more  particularly  different  trees,  on  which  the 
honey  dew  was  apparent,  chance  led  me  to  the  dis- 
covery of  an  holm-oak  on  which  the  honey-dew  had 
recently  appeared,  and  in  its  primitive  form,  which  is 
that  of  a  transpired  humour.  The  leaves  were  co- 
vered with  several  thousands  of  globules,  or  smaJl 
round  and  compact  drops,  without,  however,  touching 
or  intermixing,  similar  to  those  which  are  seen  on 
plants  after  a  thick  fog.  The  position  of  the  globule 
seemed  to  indicate,  not  only  the  point  from  which  it 
exuded,  but  also,  the  number  of  pores  or  glands  of 
the  leaf  in  which  this  mellifluous  juice  had  been  pre- 
pared.  1  assured  myself,  that  the  honey-dew  pos- 
sessed the  real  colour  of  honey,  which  of  itself,  was 
sufficient  to  decide  on  its  origin  without  removing  the 
doubts,  which  a  contrary  prejudice  establishes.  The 
honey-dew  of  a  neighbouring  bramble  had  not  the 
same  distinct  appearance  ;  the  little  globules  had  no 
doubt  commixed,  or  being  united  to  each  other, 
either  by  the  humidity  of  the  air,  or  by  the  heat 
which  had  dilated  and  extended  them,  they  formed 
large  drops,  or  broad  layers,  the  dried  matter  of 
which,  had  become  more  viscous.  It  is  under  these 
.latter  forms  that  the  honey-dew   is  commonly  per- 


THE  farmer's  manual.  185 

ceived,  and  our  surprise  need  not  be  great,  that  exu- 
dation is  not  suspected  to  be  the  cause.  In  the  sea- 
son when  r  remarked  the  honey-dew  upon  the  ever- 
green oak,  in  globules,  this  tree  bore  two  sorts  of 
leaves  ;  the  old  ones,  of  a  close  tissue,  like  those  of  the 
holly,  or  those  trees  which,  on  the  approach  of  win- 
ter, do  not  shed  their  leaves ;  and  the  new  ones, 
which  were  yet  tender,  and  which  had  shot  forth  only 
a  short  time.  The  honey-dew  appeared  constantly 
only  on  the  leaves  of  the  year  old ;  the  leaves  were, 
however,  still  covered  with  the  tufts  of  the  new 
shoots,  and  consequently  sheltered  from  all  species 
of  rime,  or  drisling  rain,  which  might  have  fallen  upon 
them ;  this  is  a  convincing  proof,  that  the  honey-dew 
is  not  foreign  to  the  leaves  on  which  it  is  found,  and 
that  it  never  appears  in  any  other  place,  as  the 
.  new  shoots  of  our  ever-green  oaks,  which  ought  to 
have  been  touched  the  first,  as  being  the  most  expos- 
ed, did  not  exhibit  the  smallest  drop.  The  samt  sin- 
gularity struck  me  in  regard  to  the  honey-dew  of  the 
bramble,  although,  by  the  conformation  of  this  shrub, 
all  its  leaves  are  exposed  nearly  alike  to  the  air,  or 
to'the  dew,  which  should  fall  in  a  vertical  direction. 
The  honey-dew  appeared  only  upon  the  old  leaves, 
the  new  ones  had  not  a  greater  quantity  than  the  new 
shoot  of  the  oak,  which  has  just  been  mentioned. 
It  is  probably  only  the  long  exposure  to  the  air,  per- 
haps to  its  intemperature,  and  especially  to  the  sun, 
which  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  true  agent  of  this 
secretion.  To  elucidate  this  subject  still  further,  the 
plants  or  shrubs  of  different  species  in  the  vicinity  of 
which  the  honey-dews  appear,  and  of  a  nature  less 
suitable  to  the  formation  of  the  juice  of  which  I  am 
now  speaking,  do  not  carry  the  least  vestige  df  it. 
This  honey  never  appears  oh  the  rocks,  or  stones,  un- 
der the  trees  on  which  it  is  found,  which  is  a  fresh 
proof,  that  this  species  of  liquid  manna  does  not  fall 
from  the  air  like  rain,  as  it  would  then  diffuse  itself 
on  all  bodies  indifferently,  and  would  not  appear  sole- 
16 '^ 


i^^  THE    FARMER^S    MAIfUAt^ 

ly  on  certain  vegetables,  and  even  on  some  of  then 
parts  to  the  exclusion  of  others.  The  only  objection 
to  this  theory,  (and  I  must  acknowledge,  that  the  ex- 
perience of  the  most  able  Naturalists  is  against  me,) 
IS,  that  the  dew  is  attracted  by  some  bodies,  whilst  it 
is  not  by  others ;  but  it  is  known  that  this  phenome- 
non w^hich  often  rises  from  the  earth,  always  floats  in 
the  air,  where  it  always  obeys  the  least  breath,  and 
the  weakest  attraction,  and  often  attaches  itself  to 
the  upper  as  well  as  the  lower  parts  of  the  leaves  of 
trees.  If  it  fell  like  rime,  it  would  moisten  indiffe- 
rently every  object.  The  acceleration  of  its  fall, 
would  enable  it  to  surmount  the  obstacle  of  the  weak 
repulsions,  which  it  would  find  in  its  course.  The 
circumstance,  however,  that  favours  in  the  greatest 
degree  the  illusion  of  the  pretended  fall  of  the  honey- 
dew  is,  that  it  is  only  the  upper  part  of  the  leaves 
which  is  moistened  with  it.  It  has  been  seen,  also, 
that  the  moisture  appears  only  on  certain  leaves,  that 
is,  on  the  new  ones  and  those  that  are  the  least  ex- 
posed, and  this  attraction  or  attachment  is  not  the  ef- 
fect of  chance ;  it  is  further  known,  that  it  is  on  the  side 
of  the  leaf  where  the  pores  are  not  open  and  distin- 
guishable that  the  greatest  exudation  takes  place.  It 
is  there  that  the  excretory  vessels  unite,  by  which 
the  humour  of  the  plants  escapes  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  absorbents,  which  serve  for  their  nutrition,  in 
attracting  the  water  of  the  rain  and  vapours  which 
are  diffused  in  the  air.  If  the  different  proofs  be 
now  collected,  which  have  been  advanced,  it  may  be 
considered  as  undeniably  proved,  th'it  the  honey-dew 
exudes  from  the  leaves  of  certain  trees,  and  doe.« 
ot  fall  from  the  atmosphere. 


CHAP.  XV. 

On  Szuarms  in  general. 

In  the  spring,  when  a  hive  is  over  stocked  with 
young  Bees,  a  particular  period  arrives  when  they 


THE  farmer's  manual.  18(7 

seek  for  a  new  habitation.  A  swarm,  therefore,  is 
nothing  more  than  a  colony  of  Bees  which  are  for- 
saking their  native  home  in  quest  of  another  place  of 
residence.  This  change  of  abode  now  becomes  ne- 
cessary from  their  obedience  to  nature's  law,  increase 
and  multiply^  and  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  pre- 
serv^ation  and  support  of  the  whole,  as  well  as  the  ge- 
neral principle  of  increase.  One  of  the  fundamen- 
tal principles  amongst  Bees  is,  that  the  small  hives 
(all  other  things  being  equal)  generally  swarm,  one, 
two,  or  three  days  sooner  than  the  large  ones ;  1st, 
from  the  want  of  room  ;  2d,  from  their  increased 
heat  in  bringing  forward  their  eggs.  The  time  in 
which  Bees  swarm  differs  in  all  countries.  Mr.  Men- 
tille  says,  they  swarm  in  the  Isle  of  Cuba  throughout 
the  year,  and  Don  Ulloa  says,  they  cast  their  swarms 
every  month,  and  sometimes  double.  In  Europe, 
generally,  as  in  America,  they  cast  their  swarms  in  the 
spring  and  summer,  according  to  the  state  of  the  sea- 
son ;  the  warmer  the  climate  or  weather,  the  ear- 
lier they  swarm. 

As  soon  as  a  young  queen  has  emerged  from  her 
nymphal  state,  she  becomes  capable  of  laying  eggs, 
this  is  never  done  in  the  mother  hive,  but  always  in 
a  new  habitation.  The  Bees  rally  around  their 
queen,  and  conduct,  or  follow  her  to  some  secure  re- 
treat, where  she  may  deposit  her  eggs  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  a  new  swarm.  This  retreat  being  se- 
cured, she  deposits  her  eggs  as  before  stated,  and 
thus  lays  the  foundation  for  a  new  swarm  the  next 
spring.  Several  important  things  are  now  necessary 
to  be  understood,  and  carefully  attended  to,  as  the 
sure  signs  of  their  being  about  to  swarm.  1st,  An 
extraordinary  number  of  Bees  which  hang  in  clus- 
ters about  the  hives.  2d,  An  apparent  idleness 
amongst  the  Bees.  3d,  A  particular  noise  of  chip^ 
chip,  made  by  the  young  queen,  two  or  three  nights 
before  they  swarm.  4th,  An  unusual  bustle  amongst 
the  drones.     5th,  A  sudden  silence  succeeding  a  vio- 


188  THE  farmer's  manual. 

lent  uproar.  6th,  The  continual  motion  of  the  wings 
of  the  Bees  which  stand  at  the  entrance.  7th,  Vio- 
lent commotions  at  the  entrance  of  the  hives,  and  the 
Bees  crowding  out  in  great  numbers.  Ahhough  these 
are  certain  indications  of  swarming,  yet  they  some- 
times take  place  at  other  times,  when  they  do  not 
sw.irm.  The  time  of  swarming  is  critical,  and  must 
be  carefully  attended  to  ;  the  least  neglect  may  occa- 
sion the  loss  of  a  swarm.  The  profits  of  a  swarm 
are  worthy  of  the  highest  attention  ;  but  the  pleasure 
to  an  Apiarian  is  highly  gratifying.  The  buz  of  con- 
fusion that  accompanies  a  swarm  when  they  quit  the 
mother  hive,  and  rise  into  the  air  in  quest  of  their 
new  abode,  fills  the  Apiarian  with  anxiety;  but  the 
calm  of  order,  which  follows  when  they  light,  fills 
him  with  joy,  and  their  safe  deposit  into  their  new 
habitation,  affords  him  the  highest  gratification.  The 
question,  whether  the  Bees  send  out  a  scout  to  disco- 
ver a  proper  place  for  their  new  habitation  before  they 
swarm,  may  be  answered  by  the  following  extract  of 
a  letter  from  Mr.  Knight,  addressed  to  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  which  is  inserted  in  the  philosophical  trans- 
actions of  1807.  Thus  says  Jan  de  Crevec.oeur  in 
his  letters  Du  Cutivateur  Americaine  ;  ''  One  of  the 
problems  most  difficult  to  solve,  is  to  know  when 
the  Bees  will  swarm,  and  whether  the  swarm  will  re- 
main in  the  hive  provided  for  them,  or  escape,  to  es- 
tablish themselves  in  the  cavity  of  some  hollow  tree  ; 
for  when  J  by  means  of  their  emissaries^  they  have  cho' 
sen  themselves  a  retreat^  it  is  not  possible  to  retain  them 
in  any  hive  you  may  select  for  them*  I  have  many 
times  forced  swarms  into  hives,  which  I  had  prepared 
for  them,  but  I  always  lost  them  towards  night;  at  the 
very  moment  when  I  least  expected  it,  they  flew 
away  to  the  woods." 

It  is  only  by  a  particular  management  that  a  swarm 
of  Bees  can  be  reconciled  to  a  hive,  when  a  distant 
domicil  has  been  chosen.  If  they  desert  their  hive 
soon  after  swarming,  they  must  be  pursued,  and  their 


THE  farmer's  manual.  189 

iiew  abode  discovered  if  possible,  and  the  Bees  must 
be  hived  again,  and  confined  in  the  hive  two  or  three 
days,  with  some  feeding,  until  the  queen  begins  to  lay 
her  eggs,  then  the  swarm  may  bo  considered  as  se- 
cured, Dubost  in  his  works  on  Bees  asserts,  that  he 
has  seen  a  collection  of  Bees  enter  an  empty  hive  in 
the  morning,  and  before  night  of  the  same  day,  a 
strange  swarm  from  some  foreign  Apiary,  enter  the 
same  hive  and  take  possession,  and  that  the  same 
facts  have  been  noticed  by  other  Apiarians.  One 
of  the  greatest  errors  of  the  cotager  in  the  manage- 
ment of  his  Bees,  is  in  giving  his  swarm  old  and  de- 
cayed hives ;  these  hives  are  generally  infested  with 
those  insects  which  are  the  enemies  of  the  Bees,  and 
ruin  their  swarms*  It  seldom  happens  that  the  first 
flight  of  a  swarm  is  to  any  great  distance,  but  it  ge- 
-nerally  alights  upon  some  neighbouring  tree,  or  bush. 
Every  exertion  should  then  be  made  to  hive  it,  for  it 
will  not  tarry  more  than  two  or  three  hours,  especial- 
ly under  a  hot  sun ;  and  when  it  is  hived,  it  should  be 
covered  with  a  sheet,  or  table-cloth,  to  shield  it  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  best  mode  of  hiving  your 
Bees  is,  either  to  cut  off  the  bough  on  which  they 
hang,  and  place  it  under  the  hive,  either  in  your 
Apiary,  or  upon  a  table  near  to  it,  or  place  the  hive 
under  the  bough  when  taken  off,  and  shake  off  the 
Bees  into  the  hive.  Many  persons  perform  this  ope- 
ration, without  any  safe-guard  to  their  persons,  but 
I  would  recommend  some  covering,  that  will  guard 
the  head,  and  particularly  the  face  and  eyes,  the 
hands  and  legs  ;  that  for  the  head,  may  be  of  canvass 
placed  over  the  hat,  which  will  extend  it  from  the 
face  beyond  the  reach  of  the  stings  of  the  Bees,  and 
it  must  extend  down  so  low,  as  to  tie  around  the 
body,  and  be  closed  upon  the  back,  so  as  to  exclude 
the  entrance  of  the  Bees.  This  covering  will  give 
confidence,  which  is  one  of  the  requisites  in  handling 
Bees.  Bees  shouM  never  be  breathed  upon  at  the 
entrance  of  the  hive,  this  irritates  them.     If  they  arc 


290  THE  farmer's  makual. 

blown  upon  with  a  bellows,  it  exasperates  them.  A 
great  light  dazzles  them ;  hence  the  reason  why  they 
can  be  better  managed  in  clear  bright  weather,  than  in 
cloudy  weather.  In  swarming  your  Bees,  let  your 
dress  be  of  some  light  colour,  and  guard  the  hair  and 
the  eyes  particularly,  for  these  are  the  objects  they 
aim  at  in  their  wrath.  If  the  swarm  are  restless  after 
they  are  hived,  you  may  suspect  the  queen  is  lost, 
and  the  Bees  will  soon  return  to  the  mother  hive.  If 
you  examine  the  parent  hive,  and  obtain  a  supernu- 
merary queen,  and  introduce  her  into  your  new  hive, 
she  will  be  well  received,  and  all  will  be  tranquil, 
and  the  swarm  will  hum  with  joy.  Whenever  a 
swarm  divides  itself  into  several  clusters,  it  is  the  ef- 
fect of  several  queens  in  the  hive,  they  should  be  im- 
mediately joined,  and  the  Bees  will  destroy  all  the 
supernumerary  queens,  and  the  one  joint  stock  will 
greatly  exceed  in  value  any  number  of  small  ones. 
If  such  a  divided  swarm  should  be  one  of  your  first 
swarms,  and  you  should  wish  to  multiply  your  Bees 
by  keeping  tliem  separate,  spread  a  sheet  upon  the 

f round,  invert  your  hive  in  which  your  Bees  have 
een  hived,  and  by  a  smart  knock  upon  it,  the  Bees 
will  all  fall  upon  the  sheet,  they  will  not  fly  away,  but 
will  separate  themselves  into  as  many  groups  as 
there  are  queens,  and  each  group  will  cluster  round 
their  queen  ;  you  may  then  hive  them  separately,  and 
place  them  at  a  distance  from  each  other ;  the  con- 
fusion which  this  process  may  occasion,  will  subside 
in  one  night,  and  all  become  tranquil  again.  If  your 
swarm  is  hived  in  the  morning,  which  is  the  usual 
time,  the  hive  must  not  be  moved  until  evening,  to 
give  opportunity  to  the  stragglers  to  come  in.  The 
place  of  swarming,  will  be  the  resort  of  the  Bees  for 
several  days.  If  you  neglect  to  remove  your  swarm 
at  evening,  let  it  remain  five  or  six  weeks,  that  the 
combs,  which  are  very  tender  at  first,  may  acquire 
strength,  so  as  to  bear  moving  without  injury. 
Whenever  your  swarms  fly  at  a  distance  from  your 


THE  farmer's  manual*  IDl 

Apiary  to  swarm,  you  may  collect  them  into  a  bag, 
somewhat  like  a  jelly-bag,  the  same  as  you  would 
coiled  them  into  your  hive,  by  cutting  off  the  bough, 
thrust  it  into  the  bag,  anil  tie  it  close;  when  you  ar- 
rive at  your  Apiary,  then  hive  them  in  the  usual  way. 
Some  rub  their  hives  with  aromatic  herbs,  and  in 
Italy  and  France,  they  rub  the  hives  with  the  leaves 
of  onions,  and  garlics  ;  and  the  noted  Apiarian  Con- 
tardi  says,  ''  The  Bees  accustom  themselves  to  this 
odour  for  the  want  of  a  better;"  but  Le  Abbe  della 
Nona  says,  *'  We  should  refrain  from  approaching 
our  Bees  when  we  have  touched  onions,  or  eaten 
cheese,  for  both  will  excite  their  acrimony."  The 
best  test  of  the  value  of  a  hive  of  Bees  is  its  weight, 
and  this  can  only  be  correctly  ascertained,  but  by 
vveighing  the  hive  without  the  Bees,  or  one  of  the 
same  size  and  structure,  and  then,  by  weighing  them 
both  together.  The  best  swarms  are  from  5  to  Gibs, 
they  sometimes  weigh  8lbs.,  but  this  is  rare,  and  are 
not  desirable,  as  they  impoverish  the  parent  hive  too 
much.  5000  Bees,  generally  weigh  a  pound,  a  good 
swarm  of  4lbs.  consists,  therefore,  of  20,000;  the 
quantity  of  honey  such  a  swarm  carries  with  it  to  be- 
gin a  new  colony,  is  generally  about  4lbs. 

The  signs  attending  the  flight  of  the  second  swarms 
at  the  time  of  swarming,  vary  from  those  of  the  first. 
Wildman  says,  the  second  swarms  appear  generally 
about  ten  days  after  the  first,  this  is  not  absolutely 
correct ;  I  have  known  them  often  swarm  on  the  in- 
termediate days,  from  the  4th  to  the  10th,  and  some 
hives  do  not  throw  a  second  swarm,  and  this  may  be 
ascertained  upon  examination  of  the  hives,  when  it 
appears  that  the  combs  are  bare  and  destitute  of 
Bees,  when  the  supernumerary  queens  arc  dead  be- 
fore the  hive,  and  when  the  Bees  tear  from  the  cells 
the  nymphs  of  the  dronfes,  no  second  swarm  is  then 
expected ;  but  if  the  Bees  leave  3  or  4  queens  alive 
in  the  hive,  there  is  some  chance  of  a  second  swarm. 
Thece  particular  examinations  are  not  common  to  all 


192  THE  farmer's  manual. 

proprietors  of  Bees  ;  I  would  advise  generally,  that 
the  hives  be  watchi^d  from  the  4th  to  the  12th  day  af- 
ter they  have  cast  their  swarms,  and  if  none  appears 
by  that  time,  it  may  be  concluded  there  will  none  ap- 
pear, A  second  swarm  is  seldom  worth  preserving 
Over  the  winter  ;  the  stock  of  honey  which  it  collects^ 
not  being,  generally,  adequate  to  its  support ;  but  if 
two  swarms,  after  the  first,  are  thrown  oft',  a  junction 
should  be  effected  between  them  without  delay.  This 
may  be  done  by  searching  the  hive  of  one  of  the 
swarms,  and  removing  the  queen,  and  then  imrnersing 
the  two  swarms,  so  to  be  united,  in  pure  water,  or 
water  saturated  with  ale,  sugar  and  honey,  and  plac- 
ed in  a  tub  for  the  purpose  :  when  they  are  well  mix- 
ed together  by  stirring,  I  then  strain  out  the  Bees,  by 
passing  the  liquor  through  a  sieve,  and  return  both 
swarms,  so  mixed,  into  one  hive,  and  place  it  near  the 
fire  ;  they  will  soon  begin  to  hum,  and  in  one  hour, 
will  be  restored  to  life  again ;  no  quarrel  will  ensue 
upon  this  method.  All  other  methods  of  joining 
swarms,  generally  expose  them  to  quarrels.  Even  in 
this  method,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  one  of  the 
queens  should  be  destroyed,  or  all  will  be  quarrel. 
Whenever  the  weather  is  rainy  the  next  day  after 
hiving  your  Bees,  it  will  become  necessary  to  feed 
them  at  evening,  particularly  if  it  should  continue 
rainy  two  or  three  days  ;  continue  feeding  at  evening, 
until  the  weather  becomes  fair,  they  will  then  visit 
the  fields,  and  supply  themselves.  Whenever  you 
have  occasion  to  move  the  hive  of  the  young  swarm, 
either  for  feeding,  or  otherwise,  let  it  be  done  very 
gently,  or  the  young  and  tender  combs  will  be  injur- 
ed. It  is  always  best  to  let  them  stand  qxiiet  for  two 
months,  they  are  then  solid  and  firm,  and  may  be  in- 
spected with  safety.  The  purest  honey,  called  vir- 
gin honey,  is  always  found  in  the  hives  of  the  second 
swarms.  1  have  noticed  the  clustering  of.  the  Bees 
without  the  hive,  as  one  of  the  signs  of  ^warraiiig; 
this  sometimes  arises  from  a  want  of  room  in  the 


THE  FARMER'S  MANUAL.  193 

hive,  and  may  be  remedied  either  by  an  eking  on 
the  bottom  of  the  hive,  of  3,  4,  5,  or  6  inches,  as  oc- 
casion may  require ;  or  by  drawing  honey  from  the 
top  of  the  hive,  as  has  been  described  by  ray  own 
invented  hive,  which  may  be  considered  the  best 
way.  The  author,  here,  runs  into  a  lengthy  detail 
of  forming  artificial  swarms,  which  may  answer  the 
purpose  of  curious  Apiarians  to  amuse  themselves 
with,  and  write  about.  I  shall  pass  over  the  whole, 
as  foreign  to  the  design  of  this  work,  which  is  to  il- 
lustrate the  correct  principles  of  nature,  and  apply 
them  to  the  plain  practical  principles  of  common 
sense. 


CHAP.  xvr. 

On  preparing  Honey  and  Wax  for  market. 

If  a  large  quantity  of  honey  is  gathered  annually. 
a  specific  place  should  be  appropriated  for  its  mani- 
pulation, and  its  aspect  should  always  be  to  the 
south,  and  it  should  be  perfectly  secured  against  all 
access  to  the  Bees.  When  only  a  small  quantity  of 
honey  is  collected,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  have  two 
or  three  small  sieves  of  horse-hair  cloth,  with  as 
many  small  vessels  of  earthen,  together  with  some 
vessels  to  receive  the  honey,  for  its  preservation.  A 
small  press  is  indispensably  necessary,  and  some 
strong  linen  cloths  which  are  to  contain  the  honev 
when  expressed,  and  finally,  some  great  buckets,  and 
glazed  earthen  vessels,  with  two  handles,  having  a 

u-^  u^^J""^  ^^^^  ^"  '"^^  ^^^^  ^^^  bottom,  through 
which  the  honey  is  to  be  poured,  as  it  flows  from  the 
combs,  and  which  must  be  kept  constantly  closed 
with  a  cork.  To  obtain  the  prime  honey,  heat,  ce- 
lerity and  cleanliness  are  requisite.  The  honey 
should  be  extracted  from  the  combs  as  soon  as  possi^ 


194  THE  farmer's  maktual. 

ble  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  hives  ;  it  will  then  flow 
more  readily.  The  operations  should  be  in  a  fair 
day,  and  under  the  influence  ol  the  sun,  falling  di- 
rectly upon  the  honey,  when  extracting?,.  Particular 
care  must  be  taken  to  remove  all  dead  Bees,  and  all 
such  cells  as  contain  brood,  or  pollen  ,  these  will  all 
injure  the  honey.  If  the  season  is  far  advanced, 
the  heat  of  the  sun  must  b-  supplied  by  the  heat  of 
the  stove,  to  render  the  r^fwHtion  more  free.  The 
sieves  are  now  placed  ove  th  •  vessels,  and  the  combs 
are  now  cut  in  pieces  ;  bui  t  irust  be  observed,  that 
they  must  be  cut  transvers^  Iv \  and  twice,  viz.  at  top 
and  bottom,  in  order  to  hy  open  each  cell.  The 
combs  must  not  be  crushed  ;  this  injures  the  purity  of 
the  honev,  both  from  brood,  and.  bee-bread.  Water 
should  be  in  readiness  to  wash  the  hands  of  the  ope- 
rator, and  his  utensils,  and  this  water  should  be  pre- 
served. When  a  certain  quantity  of  honey  has  flow- 
ed into  the  pans,  it  is  then  poured  into  the  buckets 
with  the  hole  at  the  bottom,  and  carefully  covered. 
On  the  following  day,  it  may.be  poured  into  the  ves- 
sels, either  for  use,  or  to  convey  it  to  market.  This 
is  prime  honey. 

Second  honey  is  thus  obtained ;  let  the  combs 
from  which  prime  honey  has  thus  been  obtained,  be 
kneaded  a  little ;  then  wrung  in  a  clean  cloth,  or 
pressed  through  a  strong  canvass  cloth  ;  when  the  first 
is  pressed,  you  may  add  a  second,  then  a  third,  and 
so  on,  leaving  them  to  drain ;  after  draining,  the 
cakes  of  wax  are  removed  from  the  cloths  to  be  melt- 
ed. If  the  weather  is  so  cold  as  to  render  it  neces- 
sary, the  combs  may  be  placed,  for  a  time,  in  an 
oven,  moderately  warm,  and  drawn  for  pressing,  as 
occasion  may  require.  This  second  honey  will  be 
distinguished  by  a  scum  which  will  soon  arise  upon 
its  surface.  All  the  utensils  used  in  this  process 
should  be  taken  to  the  Apiary,  and  exposed  to  the 
Bees  -,  they  will  soon  cleanse  them  ;  but  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  expose  to  them  pure  honey,  this  will 


MANUAL.  105 

injure  the  Bees.  Honey  to  be  preserved,  should  be 
piu  into  close  vessels,  corked  close,  and  put  into  a 
dry  place,  to  preserve  it  from  souring;  it  should 
never  be  mixed  with  honey  that  has  acquired  consis- 
tency ;  this  will  cause  a  fermentation,  and  render 
both  sour.  The  Abbe  della  Rocca  says,  that  sixty 
pounds  of  honey-comb,  will  yield  six  or  seven  pounds 
of  wax ;  but  I  could  never  obtain  more  than  three  or 
four  pounds  of  wax  to  a  hundred  pounds  of  comb. 
There  is  scarcely  any  article  in  commerce  more  adul- 
terated than  honey  ;  it  is  generally  sold  by  weight, 
and  mixed  with  other  farinaceous  substances,  by 
which  means  it  is  very  seldom  obtained  pure,  in 
market.  Water  is  a  test  by  which  adulterated  ho- 
ney may  be  discovered.  Honey,  impregnated  with 
flour,  gives  to  the  water  a  q;^ilky  colour ;  and,  when 
boiled  in  water,  gives  a  scum,  which,  when  taken  off 
and  cooled,  becomes  a  fine  farinaceous  substance. 
Honey  is,  however,  not  equal  in  its  quality,  but  the 
choice  is  easy  and  important.  The  best  honey,  is 
new,  transparent,  of  a  ropy  consistency,  of  a  fra- 
grant and  agreeable  smell,  rather  aromatic,  and  of  a 
sweet  pungent  taste.  The  white  is  preferable  to  the 
yellow;  the  new  to  the  old;  the  honey  of  the  spring, 
to  that  of  the  summer,  or  autumn  ;  and  that  when 
boiled,  gives  the  least  froth;  and  that  which  gives 
a  mild  odour  is  preferable  to  that  which  gives  a 
strong  odour.  These  are  the  general  characteristic 
features  of  honey. 


CHAP.  XVII. 

On  the  cause  of  the  mortality  of  Bees* 

The  first  of  these  are  the  diseases  to  which  they 
are  incident,  and  the  casualties  of  life,  together  with  the 
cruelty  of  man  in  robbing  and  destroying  his  swarms 


'^96  THE    FARMER^S    MANUAL. 

at  the  same  time  ;  all  these  have  been  considered 
under  the  chapters,  Diseases  of  Bees,  and  Enemies  of 
Bees.  Many  Apiarians,  as  well  as  common  people, 
believe,  that  cold  is  an  occasion  of  the  mortality  of 
Bees  ;  but  this  is  true  only  in  a  limited  sense  ;  and  it 
is  found  from  the  nicest  observations,  that  more  Bees 
die,  in  proportion,  in  warm,  than  in  cold  climates. 
The  Bee  flourishes  well  in  Siberia,  and  throughout 
Russia ;  and  where  the  summers  are  short,  and  the 
tvinters  long,  the  almost  torpid  state  of  the  Bee  dur- 
ing winter,  renders  him  incapable  of  devouring  much 
food,  and  yet  they  seldom  if  ever  perish  with  frost, 
In  their  hives.  The  woods  of  Russia  are  known  to 
abound  with  Bees,  and  the  peasants  have  honey  from 
the  forests  in  great  plenty,  and  always  at  their  com- 
mand. 

Travels  in  Lapland,  by  a  Swedish  officer  who  ac- 
companied the  French  Academicians,  who  went  out 
to  measure  the  length  of  a  degree  at  the  Pole,  states, 
that  "  in  these  countries  contiguous  to  the  Pole,  there 
are  three  months  continual  night  in  winter,  and  the 
cold  is  so  intense  that  spirits  of  wine  will  freeze  in 
the  thermometer ;  when  the  door  of  a  room  is  open- 
ed, the  exterior  air  converts  the  vapour  immediately 
into  snow.  In  summer,  there  are  three  months  con- 
linual  day,  and  we  are  so  annoyed  with  Bees  and  flies 
of  all  kinds,  that  we  are  obliged  to  burn  green  wood 
to  occasion  a  smoke  to  drive  them  away."  A  sum- 
mer of  three  months  perpetual  day  gives  the  Bees  an 
advantage  for  laying  in  stores,  which  may  always  be 
sufficient  for  food  for  their  long  winters,  under  their 
torpid  state,  and  the  natural  heat  of  the  swarms,  suf- 
ficient to  preserve  them  from  freezing  to  death.  Mr, 
luish  states,  that  he  measured  the  atmosphere  in  the 
yard  winter  of  1814  with  the  thermometer,  when  the 
:o!d  was  20  degrees  below  freezing  point,  and  then 
olaced  the  thermometer  within  his  bee-hives,  and 
bund  the  temperature  20  degrees  above  it,  making  a 
iifference  of  40  degrees.    This  proved  to  his  satis 


THE 


MANUAL.  197 


faction  that  the  swarm,  in  their  compact  state,  might 
set  all  cold  at  defiance,  if  they  were  full  fed.  This 
also  led  him  to  conclude,  that  whenever  Bees  died 
with  the  cold  of  winter,  their  food  must  be  short,  and 
their  hives  old,  and  bad,  so  as  to  admit  both  frost  and 
wet.  He  also  remarks,  that  heat  often  destroys  the 
swarms,  when  the  hives  are  exposed  to  the  intense 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  that  this  evil  ought  carefully  to 
be  guarded  against.  Mr.  Huish  also  remarks,  that 
the  light  of  the  snow,  in  a  clear  day,  often  invites  the 
Bees  abroad,  and  a  chill  causes  them  to  light  upoa 
the  snow,  where  they  all  perish ;  he  directs  that  the 
hives  be  closed  at  such  times.  Twelve  or  fourteen 
pounds  of  honey  may  be  considered  suflScient  food 
for  a  common  swarm,  through  the  winter;  you  may  al- 
ways determine  the  state  of  your  hives  with  regard  to 
food,  by  weighing  them  in  January  or  February,  (al- 
ways allowing  more  for  the  weight  of  an  old  hive 
than  a  new  one,  on  account  of  an  accumulation  of 
bee-bread,  which,  by  its  augmentation  in  old  hives, 
increases  their  weight.)  If  your  quantum  of  food 
falls  short,  feed  your  Bees. 

Butler,  in  his  feminine  Monarchy,  remarks,  "  That 
no  hope  can  be  entertained  of  saving  a  hive  through 
the  winter,  that  weighs  only  10  or  12  pounds;  but 
one  of  15  pounds  may  be  preserved  by  feeding,  and 
one  of  20  pounds  will  winter  safe,  and  free  from  all 
fear  of  famine." 


CHAP.  XVIII. 

On  the  life   of  the  Bee  and  period  of  duration  of  a 
hive. 

There  are  two  seasons  which  exhaust  the  hives  af 
their  inhabitants ;  the  spring  and  autumn.  It  may 
be  calculated  with  some  certainty,  that  more  than 
one-third  of  a  hive  dies  in  autumn,  and  nearly  the 
same  number  in  the  spring.  The  life  of  the  Bee  has 
17* 


198  THE    farmer's    MANyAi.. 

been  generally  estimated  at  one  year,  or  t\to  at  fur- 
therest.  Mr.  Reaumur  was  of  this  opinion,  although 
the  experiments  which  he  made  were  not  decisive. 
Mr.  Reaumur  marked  500  Bees  in  the  month  of  April, 
and  in  November  following,  not  one  was  to  be  seen. 
The  Germans  estimated  the  life  of  the  Bee  at  .one 
year.  Mr.  Huish  is  of  opinion  that  the  Bee  may 
live  3,  4,  or  even  more  years,  because,  he  once  mark- 
ed one  of  his  queen  Bees,  by  clipping  her  wings,  and 
;ound  that  she  lived  4  years  ;  when  the  hive  was  for- 
saken by  the  whole  swarm,  and  he  had  no  knowledge 
of  her  afterwards  •,  and  he  thus  concludes,  ''  If  the 
queens,  who  lay  a  great  number  of  eggs,  live  3  or  4 
years,  the  Bees,  by  a  natural  conclusion,  ought  to  live 
as  long.''  The  barbarous  method  of  destroying  the 
Bees  by  suflbcation,  to  rob  them  of  their  honey,  ren- 
ders it  difficult  to  ascertain  with  precision  the  natu- 
ral life  of  the  Bee  ;  added  to  this,  the  enemies  of  Bees, 
together  with  the  perishable  structure  of  their  straw 
hives,  make  general  changes  once  in  3,  4  or  5  years. 
In  the  Archipelago,  where  hives  are  made  of  baked 
earth,  they  have  sometimes  lasted  from  20  to  30 
years  ;  peopled,  like  a  city,  with  a  succession  of  po- 
pulation. Old  combs  become  destructive  to  the 
Bees,  and  generally  destroy  the  swarms  if  they  are 
iiot  removed  ;  but  upon  the  plan  of  my  new  hive,  the 
combs  may  all  be  changed  every  year  or  two,  and 
thus  the  hive  be  preserved  free  from  this  evil  of  old 
combs  ;  and  thus  the  depredations  of  one  of  the  worst 
enemies  of  the  Bees  (the  moth)  may  be  prevented. 
The  duration  of  the  straw  hive  may  be  prolonged  by 
a  good  coat  of  paint,  to  shield  it  from  the  weather. 


CHAP.    XIX. 

On  the  deprivation  of  the  hives,  ^c. 

One    of  the  most  important  questions  which  can 
be  agitated  relative  to  the  management  of  Bees  is. 


THE  parmer'^s  manual.  19S^ 

whether  it  be  more  advisable  to  suffocate  annually  a 
certain  number  of  hives,  or  to  save  their  lives  by  de- 
priving them  of  ^  part  of  their  treasure  ?  The  latter 
sentiment  begins  generally  to  prevail ;  but  the  com- 
mon hive  is  a  great  preventative  ;  because  few  have 
the  skill  and  courage  necessary  to  perform  the  ope- 
ration. I  have  shown  how  this  may  be  done,  by 
placing  one  hive  upon  another,  upon  the  story ing 
plan,  by  placing  one  hive  by  the  side  of  another,  by 
partitions  in  the  same  hive,  and  by  my  own  new  hive. 
I  will  now  show  how  the  Bees  may  be  changed  from 
one  hive  to  another,  and  thus  the  honey  removed  with 
safety  to  the  operator,  and  the  Bees.  Having  ascer- 
tained the  weight  of  the  hive,  and  consequently  the 
quantity  of  honey-comb  to  be  extracted,  begin  the  ope- 
ration at  evening,  by  inverting  the  hive  of  Bees  and 
placing  over  it  an  empty  hive  of  exactly  the  same 
circumference;  then  beat  the  lower  hive  gently,  and 
the  Bees  will  ascend  into  the  upper  hive  with  a  loud 
humming  noise.  When  they  are  still,  invert  the  up- 
per hive  with  the  Bees  on  to  the  shelf,  from  whence 
they  were  taken,  and  remove  the  honey  hive.  When 
you  cut  out  the  comb  which  you  design  for  use,  cut 
upon  one  side  of  the  hive,  and  extend  your  cutting 
quite  to  the  top,  otherwise  the  combs  left  behind, 
which  had  been  cut,  will  drip  on  to  the  Bees  on  their 
return,  and  drown  or  injure  them,  or  run  on  to  the 
shelf,  and  thus  invite  other  Bees  to  become  robbers, 
to  the  ruin  of  your  swarm.  The  honey  thus  being 
extracted,  return  the  hive  in  the  morning  to  its  usual 
place,  in  the  same  way  that  you  took  it,  by  re- 
versing the  hives  again,  and  the  Bees  will  be  restor- 
ed to  their  own  hive,  and  to  their  food.  This  may  be 
done  either  immediately  after  the  swarming  season, 
when  the  Bees  may  have  opportunity  to  fill  up  the 
chasm,  or  in  October,  but  the  former  is  much  to  be 
preferred.  Mr.  Huish  now  proceeds  to  notice  the  ar- 
guments in  favour  of  the  suffocating  plan,  by  M.  La 
Grende  at  full  length,  and  to  refute  them,  and  thu^ 


200  THE  PARMER^S  MANUAL. 

concludes  ;  If  I  manage  my  hive  well,  and  preserve 
it  for  ten  years,  it  will  yield  me  the  same  quantity 
every  year,  viz.  l5lbs.  ;  and  M.  Grenee,  by  destroy- 
ing his  hive,  has  got  40lhs.  his  hive  has  only  yield- 
ed him  one  swarm,  and  mine,  at  the  end  of  ten  years, 
has  produced  to  me  at  least  ten,  without  re{:;iirding 
the  multiplied  produce  of  the  swarms,  both  in  Bees 
and  honey.  At  the  end  of  ten  years,  my  15lhs.  a 
year,  will  give  150lbs.  with  their  swarms,  &:c.  to  his 
40lbs  of  honey  only  ;  Who  has  the  advantage  ? 


CHAP.    XX.  * 

On  the  manner  of  feeding  Bees*. 

There  are  two  seasons  in  which  the  feeding  o! 
Bees  becomes  necessary,  and  these  are  in  winter  and 
spring  ;  at  these  seasons,  the  hives  should  be  careful- 
ly watched,  and  when  found  light,  an  immediate  sup- 
ply be  given  them.  It  is  the  opinion  of  our  author, 
that  it  is  best  not  to  feed  profusely,  by  giving  a  great 
quantity  at  a  time,  but  gently,  say  about  2  pounds  a 
month,  and  that  the  feeding  should  be  in  the  morning 
early,  before  the  Bees  leave  the  hive,  and  always  in 
pleasant  weather,  and  that  the  entrance  of  the  hive 
should  be  closed  immediately  after  feeding,  to  prevent 
robbery  from  other  hives.  Or,  it  may  be  considered 
most  prudent  and  safe  to  administer  food  at  evening, 
after  sunset,  when  ihfe  entrance  of  the  hive  need  not  be 
closed  ;  but  the  vessel  containing  the  honey  must  be  re- 
moved before  the  next  morning,  to  prevent  robbery  as 
before.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  delay  feeding  your 
Bees  until  their  old  store  is  all  exhausted,  for  they  will 
thf^n  become  feeble,  and  if  you  preserve  your  Bees,  you 
will  lose  much  of  their  labours  the  next  season.  Sugar 
is  sometimes  administered  as  food  for  Bees,  as  well  as 
clear  honey  ;  Mr.  Huish  considers  the  first  as  impro- 


'THE  farmer's  manual.  201 

per  food,  and  the  latter  as  dangerous,  and  often  ex- 
posing the  Bees  to  the  dysentery  ;  and  adds,  '*  Wher- 
ever honey  is  given,  it  should  be  mixed  with  some 
good  old  white  wine,  in  the  proportion  of  six  pounds 
of  honey  to  one  of  wine  ;  it  should  then  be  placed  on 
a  slow  fire,  and  stirred  until  the  honey  is  all  dissolved, 
then  poured  out  into  a  jar  or  other  vessel  for  use. 

Dissolve  one  pound  of  sugar  in  a  quart  of  good  old 
ale  ;  boil  and  skim  it  until  it  is  clear,  when  cooled,  it 
will  have  the  consistence  of  honey,  and  may  be  given 
your  Bees.  A  little  salt  added  to  their  food  is  both 
safe  and  useful,  especially  when  they  are  threatened 
with  the  dysentery.  Molasses  and  water  boiled,  with 
a  little  salt,  may  be  a  good  substitute,  together  with 
a  little  treacle. 

M.  Ducouedic  recommends  the  addition  of  a  little 
flour  to  their  food ;  but  Mr.  Huish  objects,  and  adds, 
"  the  admixture  of  any  farinaceous  substance  acts  as 
a  laxative  upon  the  Bees,  and  instead  of  invigorating, 
weakens  and  debilitates  them." 


CHAP.  XXI. 

On  the  establishment  of  a  hive,  tht  Bees  of  which  have 
perished  by  accident  or  zoant. 

When  Mr.  Reaumur  gave  his  explanation  of  a 
swarm,  he  was  not  far  removed  from  the  discovery  of 
the  re-establishment  of  a  hive,  the  Bees  of  which 
have  prrished  by  hunger,  or  accidrnt.  A  very  sim- 
ple remark  on  the  existence  of  the  eggs  ^  f  the  queen  in 
the  hive,  and  on  the  promptitude  with  which  those 
egg^  are  hatchod  upon  the  rf^turn  ot  the  warm  season, 
would  have  infallibly  led  to  this  discovery.  Mr. 
Huish  thus  closes  this  chapter;  ''  Whenever  the  Bees 
of  a  hive  have  perished  in  autumn  or  spring,  the 
hiv^  should  be  immediately  taken  from  the  Af)iHry, 
and  deposited  in  a  dry  place,  carefully  protected 
from  insects,  spiders,  mice.  &c.  When  the  warm 
weather  has  set  in,  it  may  be  brought  from  its  repo- 


i202  THE  farmer's  manual. 

sitory,  and  exposed  to  the  effects  of  the  sun,  with  some 
caution  however,  lest  the  sun  be  too  intense,  and  melt 
the  combs :  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  this  hive, 
also,  from  the  pillaging  Bees,  by  removing  it  at  some 
distance  from  the  Apiary,  in  some  retired  spot.  The 
eggs  left  in  the  cells  will  come  forward,  and  thus  re- 
people  the  hive,  and  if  no  queen  appears  amongst 
them,  the  earliest  opportunity  must  be  taken  of  ex- 
tracting a  queen,  with  some  drones,  from  another  hive, 
(as  has  before  been  noticed,)  and  thus  effecting  the 
formation  of  this  new  colony.  Mr.  Huish  thus  adds, 
"  I  never,  however,  knew  that  a  hive  thus  regenerat- 
ed, swarmed  the  same  year,  although  Mr.  Ducouedic 
affirms  it,  especially  if  the  Apiary  be  in  the  vicinity 
of  heath,  or  buck-wheat.  Neither  is  it  to  be  desired 
from  so  weak  a  stock  ;  it  is  fit  only  for  to  be  preserv- 
ed over  for  the  next  season." 


CHAP.  XXII. 

On   the   custom    of  transporting  hives  of  Bees  from 
place  to  place  J  for  a  change  of  pasturage,  tj/-c. 

In  many  countries,  this  is  considered  as  a  very  im- 
portant point  in  the  practical  management  of  I3ees. 
Savery,  in  his  letters  on  Egypt,  enters  into  a  long  de- 
tail of  the  manner  in  which  the  Egyptians  transport 
their  hives  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  fresh  pasturage,  and  concludes  thus,"  This 
species  of  industry,  procures  to  the  Egypt  inns,  an 
abundance  of  wax  and  honey,  and  enables  them  to 
export  a  considerable  quantity  to  foreign  countries.'^ 
This  practice  is  alike  common  to  the  Chinese,  Ita- 
lians, French,  Germans,  &c.  Mr.  Boman,  in  his  dic- 
tionary, observes,  **  Great  are  the  advantages  of  be- 
ing in  the  vicinity  of  some  navigable  river  ;  by  these 
means  the  spring  of  a  dry  country,  can  be  united 
witl»  the  autumn  of  a  fertile,  umbrageous  one,  and 
thereby  ample  amends  be  made  for  the  poverty  of 
*he  coujotry  in  which  the  Apiarian  may  be  established.'' 


THE  Parmer's  manual.  203 

Mr.  Boman  further  adds,  *'  we  are  informed  by  a  Me- 
moir of  Duhamet,  that  the  profit  which  is  extracted 
from  the  Bees,  under  this  management,  is  very  consi- 
derable. From  the  month  of  July,  when  the  Bees 
have  swarmed,  and  have  made  an  excellent  harvest 
from  the  sainfoin,  the  whole  of  the  wax  and  honey  is 
taken  from  them,  and  the  Bees  put  into  an  empty 
hive.  The  hives  are  then  transported  into  the  vi- 
cinity of  fresh  pasturage,  where  flowers  and  melli- 
fluous herbs  abound,  and  where  they  are  often  filled 
by  the  latter  end  of  July.  They  are  then  again 
changed  (care  being  taken  to  preserve  the  brood- 
combs)  and  transported  into  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  buck-wheat  fields,  where  they  are  again  filled  so 
as  to  yield  an  extraction  of  one  third  of  this  last 
stock  ^''  and  thus  concludes,  "  By  the  aid  of  human 
industry,  the  most  surprising  quantity  of  honey  is 
often  obtained;  but  it  must  be  confessed,  that  all 
years  are  not  alike,  and  that  some  will  not  admit  of 
more  than  one  change,'' 


CHAP.  XXIIL 

.  On  the  robberies  of  Bees,  and  the  method  of  preventing 
them. 

It  has  generally  been  understood  throughout  the 
preceding  remarks,  that  robbery  amongst  Bees, 
arises  from  a  scarcity  of  food.  I  shall,  therefore, 
pass  over  the  general  remarks  of  Mr.  Huish,  and  se- 
lect only  the  following;  ''As  the  majority  of  the 
hives  which  are  tormented  with  robbers  are  weak, 
and  in  want  of  provisions,  it  would  be  well  to  give 
them  some  food  in  the  evening,  after  sunset,  securing, 
at  the  same  time,  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  against 
the  admission  of  strangers,  otherwise  you  will  in- 
vite further  pillage.  Remove  the  hive,  at  the  same 
time,  into  some  close  room,  with  a  window  to  the 
south,  and  continue  to  feed  them  three  or  four  days^ 


204  THE  farmer's  manual. 

when  you  may  open  the  window,  and  let  your  Bees 
pass  out  and  in  at  pleasure,  when  the  weather  is  fine. 
If  the  robbers  appear  again,  close  the  window,  and 
when  the  robbers  are  gone,  admit  the  stragglers  of 
your  swarm ;  continue  to  feed,  and  you  may  save 
your  hive.  It  is  a  good  precaution  to  place  an  emp- 
ty hive  in  the  place  of  the  one  you  thus  remove,  it 
will  deceive  the  robbers." 


CHAP.  XXIV. 

On  the  advantages  which  accrue  to  the  State  and  indi- 
viduals from  the  culture  of  the  Bee. 

It  is  a  notorious  fact,  that  England  pays  annually 
to  the  north  of  Germany  40  or  £50,000  sterling  for 
the  produce  of  the  Bee,  which  could  be  saved  by  a 
small  expense  by  her  own  peasantry.  Even  in  Ame- 
rica, we  are  so  regardless  of  the  profits  of  the  Bee, 
as  to  import  honey  in^  hogsheads  from  the  island  of 
Cuba  and  elsewhere.  No  country  possesses  greater 
advantages  for  the  culture  of  the  Bee,  and  perhaps 
no  country  has  so  grossly  neglected  it.  Mr.  Huish, 
after  having  gone  over  a  complete  system  for  the  ma- 
nagement of  the  Bee,  observes,  "  I  consider  that  200 
hives  may  be  managed  by  one  person,  with  some 
slight  assistance,  during  the  swarming  season.  Some 
French  authors  eulogize  the  skill  of  M.  Prouteac, 
who  had  constantly  under  his  care  from  5  to  600 
hives  ;  this  is  rare,  and  perhaps  the  only  one.  1  will 
state  the  profits  of  five  years,  on  a  fair  and  equitable 
scale,  making,  at  the  same  time,  fair  and  ample  al- 
lowance for  the  losses,  which,  even  the  most  skilful 
Apiarian  cannot  prevent.  I  will  suppose  a  person 
to  buy  a  swarm  in  1812,  for  \vhich  he  pays  one 
guinea.  In  the  month  of  May  or  June,  his  hive 
swarms,  and  in  about  lO  days,  it  swarms  again,  this 
is  called  a  cast.  His  Apiary  now  consists  of  three 
hives,  from  one  of  which,  (the  cast,^  it  will  be  most 


THE  farmer's  manual. 


205 


prudent  for  him  to  take  the  honey,  and  the  Bees  be 
joined  to  the  strongest  stock  hives.  Suppose  the 
casts  weigh  15lbs*,  say  twenty-two  shillings;  thus, 
in  the  first  year,  he  has  received  back  the  price  of  his 
original  hive,  and  doubled  his  stock.  The  second 
year,  his  two  hives  produce  him  four  swarms  and  two 
casts;  let  him  sell  the  honey  of  his  casts,  at  15 
shillings  each,  which  will  give  him  30  shillings,  and 
add  the  swarms  to  his  stocks.  He  has  now  four 
good  stocks ;  at  the  end  of  each  year,  let  him 
weigh  his  hives,  and  take  out  all  the  comb  over 
30lbs. ;  say  lllbs.  a  year  from  each  hive  ;  this  gives 
him  40lbs.  of  honey-comb,  at  U6  gives  him  three 
pounds ;  this  added  to  the  profit  on  the  two  casts  as 
before,  gives  four  pounds  ten  shillings.  The  third 
year,  his  four  hives  produce  four  swarms,  and  four 
casts ;  he  goes  on  as  before,  and  on  the  fourth  year, 
his  Apiary  consists  of  eight  stocks.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  year,  his  Apiary  has  increased  to 
16  stocks.     1  will  now  calculate  the  actual  profit. 


1812,  To  1  swarm,   -     £l 

1813,  To  2  new  bee-hives,  0 
To  2  new  stools,  -    0 

1814,  To  4  new  bee-hives,  0 
To  4  new  stools,  -     0 

1815,  To  8  new  hives,  -  0 
To  8  new  stools,  -     0 

1816,  To  16  new  hives,  1 
To  16  new  stools,     1 

1817,  To  32  new  hives,  3 
To  32  new  stools,  3 
To  lOlbs.  su»ar  for 

feediag'  Bee?,   -     0 
To20qts.aie,at6rf.  0 
To  incidental  expen- 
ses, -     -     -     -     -     1 


1  0 

4  0 

4  0 

8  0 

8  0 

16  0 

16  0 

12  0 

12  0 

4  0 

4  0 

6  8 
10  0 

1  0 


£15     6  S 


Or. 

1813,  By  one  swarm,  £  i  10 
By  one  cast,  -  -  0  15  0 
By  lOlbs.  honey  fr. 

the  first  swarm,     0  15  0 

1814,  By  two  swarms,  2  2  0 
By  two  casts,  -  1  10  0 
By  201bs.  honey  fr. 

the  two  swarms,   110  0 

1815,  By  4  swarms,  -  4  4  0 
By  4  casts,  -  -  3  0  0 
By  401bs.  honey,      3    0  0 

1816,  By  8  swarms,  -  8  8  0 
By  8  casts,  -  -  6  0  0 
By  801bs.  honey,      6     0  0 

1817,  By  16  swarms,  -  16  16  0 
By  16  casts,  -  -  12  0  0 
160Jbs.  honey,     -  12    0  0 


Deduct     -     - 


£79 
15 


1  0 
6  8 


Actual  profit^-  -       jG63  14  4 


18 


206  THE  farmer's  manual* 

The  profit  which  is  obtained  from  the  Bee,  stands 
in  no  proportion  to  the  little  trouble  and  time  required 
in  their  culture,  and  this  is  sufficient  to  induce  those 
who  estimate  things  properly,  to  give  a  preference  to 
the  culture  of  the  Bee,  above  all  other  agricultural 
pursuits,  especially  as  no  sacrifice  of  time  or  proper- 
ty arc  required,  and  no  extensive  capital  necessary. 
As  a  proof  of  tl^e  importance  attached  to  the  culture 
of  the  Bee,  Wildman  quotes  a  modern  author,  who 
affirms,  that  when  the  Romans  took  possession  of  the 
Island  of  Corsica,  they  imposed  a  tribute  of  wax  on 
the  inhabitants,  to  the  amount  of  200,000  pounds  an- 
nually ;  supposing  the  Island  retained  the  same  quan- 
tity, that  would  give  400,000  pounds  per  annum  made 
in  one  Island  by  this  wonderful  insect.  The  known 
proportion  of  wax  to  honey  in  a  hive,  is  as  1  to  1^ 
or  20 ;  then  multiply  400,000  pounds  by  15  or  20, 
we  have  6  or  8  millions  of  pounds  of  honey,  independ- 
ent of  the  wax  as  above;  what  a  source  of  wealth  for 
Corsica,  and  all  countries  which  will  profit  by  the  im- 
provement. 

I  have  before  me  a  French  news-paper  of  the  20th 
of  September,  1787,  which  states,  under  an  article 
dated  Hanover,  August  30th,  "  The  culture  of  the 
Bee  is  a  particular  object  with  the  Hanoverians ;  the 
produce  of  wax  this  year  is  estimated  at  300,000lbs.  ; 
this,  multiplied  by  15,  gives  4,500 ,000lbs.  of  honey; 
a  most  incredible  quantity  to  be  collected  in  globules 
by  a  particular  species  of  insect."  The  Turks  derive 
great  profits  from  the  culture  of  the  Bee.  The  im- 
mense quantities  of  wax  the  Europeans  annually  draw 
from  Smyrna,  Salonichi,  and  the  Morea,  are  well 
known.  Paysonnec,  on  the  commerce  of  the  Turks 
on  the  Black  Sea,  says,  Wax  is  the  most  important 
article  in  the  commerce  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 
Speaking  of  Bulgaria,  he  says,  An  immense  quantity 
of  wax  is  exported  from  Bulgaria  ;  it  is  yellow,  and 
of  an  excellent  quality.  The  Bee  flourishes  well  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  in  China,  Siberia,  Lapland, 


THE  PARMER'S  MANUAL. 


207 


and  in  the  West-Indies,  and  thus  offers  its  labours  to 
all  classes  of  men  without  exception.  The  immor- 
tal Linneus,  in  speaking  of  the  Bee,  says,  "  It  is  not 
yet  determined  if  the  Bees,  and  other  insects,  which 
feed  on  honey,  occasion  any  injury  to  the  little  em- 
bryos, or  cause  any  obltruction  to  their  generation, 
by  imbibing  the  nectar  of  the  flowers."  Since  it  is 
so  well  known  that  the  Bees  afford  such  immense 
profit  to  the  cultivators,  with  so  little  expense  and 
trouble,  and  without  the  least  injury  to  the  most  deli- 
cate parts  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  it  must  be  ow- 
ing to  a  want  of  knowledge,  or  a  want  of  attention, 
that  America  derives  so  little  share  from  the  profits 
of  this  wonderful  insect. 


CHAP.  XXV. 

Directions  for  the  purchase  of  Hives. 

There  is  no  commodity  in  which  a  purchaser  can 
be  so  easily  deceived  as  in  a  hive  of  Bees,  and  it  is 
only  the  experienced  Apiarian  who  can  detect  the 
particular  defects.  The  value  of  a  hive  can  only  be 
known  by  a  minute  and  close  examination  of  its  inte- 
rior. If  the  exterior  be  sound,  the  interior  may  be 
bad  ;  the  combs  may  be  black  and  ill-flavoured,  which 
is  always  the  case  in  old  hives.  When  the  age  of 
the  hive  is  determined,  (which  may  be  known  by  the 
number  of  queen  cells,)  and  the  hive  is  found  free 
from  moths  and  other  enemies,  the  month  of  Februa- 
ry and  March  will  be  the  best  time  to  purchase,  and 
the  activity  of  the  Bees,  together  with  the  weight  of 
the  hive  will  give  the  best  criterion.  Hives  pur- 
chased from  a  distance,  generally  do  best,  not  being 
so  often  obstructed  in  their  labours,  by  losing  their 
way,  and  returning  to  their  old  habitations.  Swarms, 
when  moved,  do  best  when  carried  by  water,  and  in. 
the  evening. 


208  THE  farmer's  manual* 

CHAP,  XXVI. 

On  the  countries  most  beneficially  situated  for  the  cul- 
ture of  the  Bee,  and  the  number  of  hives  each  can 
support. 

The  former  has  already  been  fully  considered,  and 
the  latter  cannot  well  be  determined  ;  as  much  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  and  quantity  of  the  herbage  of 
all  countries,  and  the  advantages  which  may  be  deriv- 
ed from  the  transportation,  or  pasturage  of  Bees,  in 
different  districts  of  the  same  country,  and  as  no  da- 
mage has  yet  been  recorded  of  any  country,  from  hav- 
ing been  overstocked  with  Bees.  The  celebrated  La 
Grente  concludes,  that,  without  contradiction,  there 
are  some  countries  more  favourable  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  Bee  than  others,  yet  that  they  may  be  kept  to 
advantage  in  all,  and  that  no  one  ought  to  neglect  to 
provide  himself  with  Bees,  whatever  be  the  country 
and  the  soil,  and  the  productions  of  the  places 


CHAP.  XXVII. 

On  the  distance  which  Bees  fiy  for  food. 

It  is  generally  understood  by  Apiarians,  that  the 
Bee  can  fly  3  or  4  miles,  and  that  they  sometimes  col- 
lect honey  at  this  distance  ;  but  Mr.  Huish  has  ren- 
dered this  certain  by  the  following  fact.  '•  I  once 
accompanied  a  party  of  friends  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  si- 
tuated at  the  entrance  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and 
which  is  at  a  much  greater  distance  than  4  miles  from 
any  land.  Not  a  single  hive  of  Bees  is  kept  upon 
this  Island ;  how  great  then  was  my  astonishment  to 
find  a  considerable  number  of  Bees  busily  employed 
upon  the  Island  amongst  the  heath,  and  who  must 
have  winged  their  way  across  the  ocean  in  quest  of 


THE  FARMER^S  MANUAL.  20S 

lioney.^'  From  some  observations  afterwards  made 
by  Mr.  Huish  upon  the  labours  of  his  own  Bees,  he 
ascertained  that  they  often  went  to  a  distant  field,  two 
miles,  in  quest  of  honey,  and  that  the  velocity  of  their 
flight  was  about  a  mile  in  two  minutes. 

I  shall  here  omit  Mr.  Huish's  Monthly  Manual,  as 
it  contains  nothing  but  what  has  been  noticed  in  the 
course  of  these  remarks,  and  would  be  only  an  use- 
less repetition.  His  catalogue  of  plants  which  fur- 
nish food  for  Bees,  cannot  be  of  sufficient  importance 
to  render  it  necessary  to  swell  the  expense  of  this 
work.  His  remarJts  upon  the  utility  of  Apiarian  So- 
cieties, miist  be  apparent  to  every  person  who  reads 
this  work,  without  the  necessity  of  a  particular  chapter 
to  illustrate  it.  The  profits  which  have  been  fairly 
demonstrated  by  Mr.  Huish  upon  the  culture  of  the 
Bee,  must  be  sufficiently  striking  to  impress  every 
candid  mind  with  the  value  and  utility  of  both  the 
science  and  practice,  and  to  induce  every  careful 
farmer  to  add  the  profits  of  the  Bee  to  the  profits  of 
his  farm,  as  well  as  to  furnish  his  family  and  friends 
with  one  of  the  richest  luxuries  of  nature.  I  shall 
close  these  extracts  with  Mr.  Huish's  chapter  on 
Mead. 


CHAP,  xxvin. 

Manufacture  of  Mead^ 

Mead  is  a  beverage  prepared  of  water  and  honey; 
There  are  three  distinct  kinds  of  Mead,  the  simple, 
the  compound,  and  the  vinous.  Simple  Mead  is  made 
of  water  arid  honey  which  does  not  undergo  fermen- 
tation. Compound  Mead  is  mixed  with  fruits  and  es- 
sences, in  order  to  give  it  a  flavour.  Vinous  Mead 
is  made  of  honey  and  water,  which  is  subject  to  fer- 
mentation. Simple  Mead  is  made  by  boiling  three 
18*  ^  & 


^^^  THE    FARMEK^S    MANUAL. 

parts  of  water  to  one  of  honey  ;  the  honey  may  be  in- 
creased, or  diminished  to  the  taste.  The  process  is 
over  a  slow  fire  until  one  third  has  evaporated,  then 
skimmed,  and  put  into  a  cask,  until  the  cask  is  full ; 
after  3  or  4  days  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  The  cloths  which 
have  been  used  in  filtrating  the  honey  from  the  combs, 
may  now  be  used  and  cleared  from  their  honey  in  the 
boiling  Mead. 

Compound  Mead. 

Daring  the  boiling  process  of  simple  Mead,  add 
half  a  pound  of  raisins,  stoned,  or  seeded,  to  six 
poundsof  honey,  and  4  pints  of  water ;  boil  these  well 
together  until  the  raisins  become  soft,  and  the  4  pints 
are  wasted  to  two ;  strain  this  liquor  through  linen, 
gently,  and  mix  it  with  your  Mead,  and  let  them  con- 
tinue to  boil ;  add  to  the  boiling  Mead  a  toasted  crust 
of  bread  steeped  in  beer.  Skim  the  Mead  again  ;  re- 
move the  Mead  from  the  fire,  and  when  cool,  barrel 
it,  as  in  simple  Mead,  with  an  ounce  of  salt  of  tartar 
dissolved  in  a  glass  of  brandy.  Let  the  barrel  be 
full,  that  the  froth  may  work  over,  and  continue  to  fill 
as  the  barrel  diminishes  by  working  ;  when  this  sub- 
sides, bung  close,  and  stow  it  away  in  your  cellar; 
after  a  few  months  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  To  give  a 
variety  of  flavour  to  this  Mead,  a  few  drops  of  the 
essence  of  cinnamon  may  be  mixed  with  the  salt  of 
tartar  and  brandy;  some  lemon-peel,  syrup  of  goos- 
berries,  cherries,  strawberries,  or  aromatic  flowers, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  fabricator,  or  those  who 
use  it. 

Vinous  Mead. 

This  is  the  beverage  of  all  the  northern  people; 
they  call  it  Miod.  The  Russians,  for  example,  com- 
pose their  Mead  with  honey,  cherries,  strawberries, 
goosbcrries  and  mulberries  ;  they  soak  these  fruits 
several  days  in  clear  water,  to  which  they  add  some 
virgin  honey,  and  a  piece  of  bread  soaked  in  beer. 


THE  farmer's  manual.  211 

The  barrels  are  placed  in  a  room  of  1 8  to  25  degrees 
of  heat,  day  and  night.  The  fermentation  com- 
mences in  6  or  8  days,  and  lasts  about  six  weeks 
spontaneously  ;  it  is  then  fit  for  use,  but  increases 
its  value  by  age.  The  Grecians  put  into  their  wines 
the  flour  of  sesame,  kneaded  with  the  honey  of  Mount 
Hymettus.  By  this  method  they  made  their  wines 
delicious.  The  Turks  make  a  very  delicious  pastry 
and  confectionary  with  honey,  and  the  flour  of  se- 
same, and  even  the  sesame  itself.  The  French  imi- 
tate with  Mead  the  choicest  wines,  such  as  Malaga^ 
Rota,  Muscat,  Constantia,  &;c. ;  and  it  is  fortunate  that 
the  beverage  is  not  unhealthy. 

Vinegar. 

Put  half  a  pound  of  honey  into  a  pint  of  water, 
when  dissolved,  expose  it  to  a  warm  sun,  under  a  li- 
nen cover,  to  exclude  flies,  &c.  ;  in  about  six  weeks 
it  will  change,  and  become  good  vinegar. 


FINIS, 


CONTENTS, 


ly]^::* 


MARCFI. 


Wood,  &c.,          -         -         -         -         -         -         '  .^ 

Clover  and  Spring  Rye,              -         .         -         -  H, 

Grass  Grounds  and  Winter  Grain,        -   -         -         -  ib. 

Orchards  and  Fences, 6 

Fruit-Trees,  Water-Courses  and  Stock,          -         -  ib. 

Red  Clover  injurious  to  orchards,       -         -         -.  7 

Its  remedy,           -         -         -         -         *         -         -  ib. 

Ploughing,  &c.,         -         -         -         -         -         -  ib. 

Harrowing  and  Rolling, 11 

Remarks  on  the  general  principles  of  Husbandry,  12 

APRIL. 

Semination,      ---,-^.  13 

Peas ;  their  general  culture,         -         -         -         -  14 

MAY. 

Beans ;  their  general  culture,             -         ^         -  15 

Heligoland  Bean,          -         -----         -  ib. 

Remarks  on  the  Bean  culture,             -         -          -  16 

Gypsum, 17 

Dr.  Davy's,  and  Chemical  remarks  generally,     -  18 
Sulphur,  Oxygen  and  Lime,  the  constituents  of  Plas- 
ter of  Paris,          ------  ^J. 

Remarks  on  Oxygen,  Air,  &c.,            -         -         -  19 

Electricity,  Oxygen,  Light,  &c.,     -         -         -         -  20 

From  the  Pennsylvania  Farmer,          -         -         -  21 

Mr.  Holbrook's  experiments  upon  Gypsum,    -         -  ib, 

APRIL. 

Spring  Grains,  and  Early  Potatoes,      -         -  .      -  26 

Hogs,            ---.--          n          -  2*6. 

Kotine  of  crops, -  27 


214  CONTENTS. 

Flax,  Gjpsum  and  Soils,        -         -         -         -         -29 

Ruta  Baga,       -------  32 

Cobbet's  System  for  100  acres,      -         -         -         -  39 

General  Remarks,              -         -         -         -         -  41 

MAY. 

Indian-Corn,         -*-----  4^ 

Potatoes  ;  Grafting,  &c.,   -----  47 

Weeds, 48 

Irrigation  and  Remarks,  .         -         _         .     50,  51 

Successful  culture  of  Indian-Corn,          -         -         -  62 

JUNE. 

Culture  of  Potatoes,          ^         -         -         •■         -  53 

Clover  and  Tillage, 59 

Manures,          -         -         -         -         -         -         -  63 

Indian-Corn  continued,          .         ,         .         -         -  65 

Pasture  Grounds  and  Fencing,            -         -         -  67 

Arable  Lands,  and  the  Convertible  Husbandry,        -  70 

JULY. 

Indian-Corn  and  Haying,            .         -         -         -  75 

Potatoes,  Turnips  and  Buckwheat,          -         ^         -  77 

Wheat ;  Remarks, 78,  79 

Tillage,       - ^82 

Harvest,          -------  84 

AUGUST. 

FInx  and  Hemp,           .         .         -         -         -         ^  87 

Paring  and  Burning,            -          ■-          -         ■-          -  91 

Summer  Fallow, 26. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Indian  and  Potatoe  Harvest,       -         "         -         *     93, 94 

Semination,          -.-----,  94 

Orchards  and  Cider,           -----  96 

Remarks,             98 

OCTOBER. 

Semination^      ..•----  98 

Beans ;  Winter  Apples, ^^ 

Flax;  Carrots, lOCi 

Seed-Corn,                    -         ^          -        -        -         -  10  J 


CONTENTS. 


NOVEMBER. 


215 


Watering  and  Manurins:,    -    ^     -         -         -         -  102 

Barns  and  Barn- Yards, 104 

Hemp ;  Hurdles,      -         •         -         -         -         -  105 

Winter  Fallows,  &c.,    - 106 

DECEMBER. 

General  Remarks,             -         -         -         -         '*■  107 

Nurseries,            -         -         -         -         -         -         "  108 

Transplanting,           -         -         -         -         -         -  109 

Stock,          - ih> 

JANUARY. 

Pork,  Hams,  &c., 115 

Fattening,             -         ^         -         -         -         -         -  116 

Calves,    -         -         -         -         -         -         '         -  117 

Sheep;  Accounts,         -         -         -         -         -         -^118 

General  Remarks,    -         -         -         -         -         -  119 

FEBRUARY. 

Domestic  Manufactures,        -         -         -         -        >-  120 

Feeble  Lambs,          -         - 121 

Extracts  on  Pork,          -         -         -         -         -         "  ib. 

Salem  Aims-House  Farm,           -         -         -         -  122 

Cions  and  Pruning,       -         -         -         -         -         -  124 

General  Remarks,     -         -         -         -         -         -  125 

Remarks  on  Gardening,         -         -                   -         -  130 

Remarks  on  Fruit-Trees,  Vines  and  Shrubber}',  -  141 


Treatise  on  Bees. 


CHAPTER  I. 


On  Bees  in  general. — Natural  history  of  Bees  imper 
fectly  known. — Simplified  by  Swammerdam,  M^raldi 
and  Reaumur. — Various  species  of  Bees. — Activity  of 
Bees. — Honey  solely  produced  by  them. — Different 
substances  on  which  they  feed. — Flowers  fecundated 
by  them. — Governed  by  a  Queen. — Know  the  persons 
who  work  in  the  Apiary. — Dishke  certain  persons. — 


216  CONTENTS. 

Extent  of  their  lives  not  yet  ascertained. — Their  clean- 
liness.— Their  instinctive  sense  of  labour,  .     147 

CHAP.  II. 

Description  of  the  Queen  Bee. — Her  make, — Fecundi- 
ty.— Various  systems  of  the  manner  of  her  fecunda- 
tion.— The  Qjueen  knows  not  coition. — Reluctance  of 
the  Queen  to  sting.— Attachment  of  the  Bees  to  the 
Queen. — Her  importance  to  the  hive. — Supernumerary 
Queens  massacred  at  the  end  of  the  season. — Descrip- 
tion of  the  Queen's  cell. — Erroneous  opinions  of  cer- 
tain Naturalists  with  regard  to  the  fructification  of  the 
eggs. — Analogy  of  the  Queen  Bee  and  the  Wasp. — Ex- 
periment to  ascertain  the  existence  of  eggs  in  winter. — - 
Method  of  driving  a  hive  explained,  .         .149 

CHAP.  111. 

On  the  Drones. — Characteristics  of  the  Drones  in  a 
hive. — Possess  no  sting. — Tho.  eggs  of  the  Queen  fruc- 
tified by  them. — Natural  make  of  the  Drone. — Not 
brooding  Bees. — Refutation  of  the  opinion  of  Reaumur 
and  Debraw,  respecting  two  kinds  of  Drones. — No 
3warms  produced  if  a  deficiency  of  Drones. — A  reme- 
dy for  this  disadvantage. — Experiment  to  prove  its  effi- 
cacy.— Drones  massacred  at  the  end  of  the  season. — 
Opinion  of  Keys. — Drones  always  found  in  a  swarm. — 
Manner  in  which  they  are  killed,        .         .         .161 

CHAP.  IV. 

On  the  Common  Bees. — Called  mules  in  some  parts  ot 
England. — Their  use.— Erroneous  opinion  respecting 
their  economy. — Four  kinds  of  Bees  mentioned  by  Na- 
turalists.— One  sort  only  known  in  England. — Difference 
in  the  size  of  the  Bee  accounted  for. — Physical  descrip- 
tion of  the  Bee. — The  honey-bag. — The  honey  contain- 
ed in  it  not  intended  for  the  support  of  the  Bee. — No  ho- 
ney to  be  found  in  it  in  the  winter. — The  sting,— The  ve- 
nom bladder. — The  poison  most  virulent  in  summer. — 
Remedies  for  the  sting. — Suggestions  of  M.  Lombard  re- 
specting the  sting. — Swammerdam's  method  to  prevent 
a  Bee  from  stinging. — Specific  used  in  Prussia  for  the 
sting  of  the  Bee*^ — Eulogy  on  tl)e  Bee,         .^        .     152 


C?§NTENTir.  2W 

CHAP.  V. 

On  Hives  in  general. — The  forests  the  natural  domicil  of 
the  Bees. — Origin  ofthe  domestication  of  the  Bees. — The 
present  shape  of  the  straw  hives  in  England  reprobat- 
ed.— Straw  the  best  material  for  the  hive. — Glass  hives 
of  no  use  to  the  Naturalist. — Disadvantages  of  the  com- 
mon hive. — Description  of  Huber's  hive,  &c. — Expo- 
sition of  the  storying  system. — Advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the  storying  system. — The  error  of  flat 
hives  demonstrated. — The  vapours  in  the  hives  proved 
injurious  ;  occasion  the  death  of  the  Bees. — Glass  hives 
only  tit  for  the  Amateur. — Description  of  the  author's 
hive. — Great  harvest  of  honey  and  wax  not  attainable  at 
pleasure. — Bees  will  work  in  hives  of  any  shape,     165 

CHAP.  VI. 

On  the  Position  of  the  Apiary. — In  England  the  aspect 
to  be  to  the  southward  and  eastward. — Aspect  varies 
with  the  climate. — The  southwest  wind  to  be  guarded 
against. — Hives  to  be  placed  in  a  right  line. — Error  of 
placing  several  hives  on  the  same  bench. — The  single 
pedestal  to  be  preferred. — The  Apiary  to  be  kept  clear 
from  rubbish. — No  high  plants  to  be  suffered  to  grow 
near  the  Apiary. — The  vicinity  of  great  towns  detri- 
mental to  Bees, 162 

CHAP.  VII. 

On  the  Enemies  of  Bees, — Men  the  principal  enemies  of 
Bees. — The  common  field  and  shrew  mouse. — The  spi- 
der the  cause  of  Bees  abandoning  their  hives. — The 
iVasp. — Rules  for  destroying  wasp's  nests.— The  Hum- 
ble Bee  to  be  destroyed — Erroneous  method  of  killing 
wasp's  nests. — Wasps  the  ruin  of  hives. — Toads,  de- 
vourersofBees, — Also  of  wasps. — The  woodpecker,  &c. 
devourers  of  Bees. — The  ant. — Method  of  preserving 
the  hives  from  the  ant. — Destruction  ofthe  ant's  nests. — 
The  wax  moth. — The  death-head  sphinx. — Huber's, 
and  Lombard's  discovery  of  the  fortifications  of  Bees. — 
The  Fox,  the  Bear,  the  Badger. — Manner  in  which 
Bears  destroy  the  hives. — The  Sparrow. — The  Li- 
zard, ,  .  .  .  .  ,  .  .163 
19 


21^  CONTENtS. 

CHAP.  VIIL 

On  the  Maladies  of  the  Bees. — Difficulty  af  ascertain- 
ing the  precise  nature  of  the  maladies  of  Bees. — The 
dysentery  the  most  frequent  malady. — False  opinion  of 
Ducouedic  respecting  the  excrement  of  Bees. — Symp- 
toms of  the  dysentery. — Occasioned  by  long  confine- 
ment.— Other  causes  stated. — Remedies  proposed. — 
Recipe  of  Ranconi.— Remedy  proposed  by  Wildman. — 
Management  of  the  hives  during  the  disorder. — The 
abortive  brood  productive  of  diseases. — Lice  seldom 
found  in  any  new  hives. — Bee-bread  considered  by  some 
Apiarians  as  a  malady, 167 

CHAP.  IX. 

On  the  Brood. — Definition  of  the  brood. — Different 
states  of  the  brood. — Description  of  the  eggs. — The 
Larva. — The  Nymph. — Gradual  growth  of  the  Bee. — 
Its  emancipation  from  the  cell. — Attention  of  the  old 
Bees  to  the  young. — The  irascibility  of  the  Bees  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  the  brood. — Disputes  respect- 
ing the  nature  of  the  food  administered  to  the  brood.— 
Opinion  of  Ducouedic  respecting  it.-— Analogy  between 
the  Bee  and  the  butterfly.— The  Larva  not  fed  with  ho* 
ney. — Experiment  to  determine  it.—- Objections  there- 
to.— Investigation  of  the  contents  of  the  bladder  of  the 
Bee. — Conclusions  drawn  therefrom,  .        ,^169 

CHAP.  X. 

On  the  Comb  of  the  Bee. — New  hives  to  be  smoked. — 
Propolis  the  only  substance  made  use  of  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  comb. — Different  substances  mentioned  by 
th^  ancients. — A  swarm  provided  with  the  requisites  for 
the  construction  of  combs.— -Method  of  their  construc- 
tion.— Description  of  the  cells.— Mathematical  propor- 
tion of  them. — The  Drone  cells.— The  Queen  cells,    1 7 1 

CHAP.  XL 

On  the  different  Substances  found  in  a  Hive. — Pro- 
polis,—Its  nature,— The  use  to  which  it  is  appHed,— 
Its  medicinal  qualities, — A  substitute  for  varnish.— 
Crude  wax, — Definitions  of  it.— Opinion  of  the  ancients 
respecting  it. — Diflerence  between  propolis  and  wax. — 


CONTENTS.  219 

Proof  of  the  propolis  being  fabricated  by  the  Bees.— 
Its  analysis  by  Vauquelin  and  Cadet, — Opinion  of  M. 
Lombard,  .         .         *         ^         .         .         .174 

CHAP.  XII. 

On  Pollen,  or  Farina.— Natural  history  of  pollen.— 
The  Bee  never  mixes  the  species  of  pollen.— The  man- 
ner in  which  the  Bee  is  delivered  of  its  load.— A  cell 
seldom  full  of  pollen.— The  farina  not  wax.— Experi- 
ment to  determine  the  same.— Use  of  pollen  for  the 
brood.— Experiment  of  Huber  decisive  of  the  use  of 
pollen,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         »     176 

CHAP.  XIII. 

On  Wax.— Analogy  between  wax  and  propolis.— Import- 
ance of  wax  as  an  article  of  commerce.— Various  opin- 
ions of  the  qualities  of  wax.— The  experiments  of  Hu- 
ber examined.— Extract  from  the  Memoirs  of  Blondelu, 
on  the  nature  of  wax.  Opinion  of  Bonner  on  the  origin 
of  wax.— Examination  of  the  opinion  of  M.  Jussieu.--- 
Description  of  the  wax-tree  of  America  and  China,     178 

CHAP.  XIV. 

On  Honey.— Its  general  history,-  Origin  of  it,— Differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  its  origin,— Varies  according  to 
the  climate  of  a  country.-~The  honey-dew.— Examina- 
tion of  its  nature.— Considered  as  an  exudation  from  the 
plants.— Primary  destination  of  honey.— Two  kinds  of 
honey.— Opinion  of  Ducarne  on  the  fall  of  the  honey- 
dew. — The  honey-dew  on  the  oak  and  the  bramble, 
not  the  same. — Opinion  of  the  ancient  Naturalists. — De- 
scription of  the  honey-dew,  examined  by  M.  Bossiers  du 
Sauvages  and  Ducouedic,  .         ;         .         .179 

CHAP.   XV. 

On  Swarms  in  general.— Nature  of  a  swarm.— A  small 
hive  generally   swarms  before  a  large  one.— Time  of 

swarming  generally  varies  in  different  countries In 

Cuba  the  hives  swarm  throughout  the  year.— In  Eng- 
land, in  May  and  June.— No  Queen,  no  swarm.— The 
first  swarm  the  produce  of  the  eggs  of  the  preceding 
year. — Signs  of  a  swarm.— Implicit  confidence  not  to  be 
placed  in  them. — Person  to  be  appointed  to  watch.— 


^20 


CONTENTS. 


Description  of  a  swarm  leaving  the  hive. — Question  dis- 
cussed whether  the  Bees  send  out  a  scout. — Confirmed 
by  Mr.  Knight. — Opinion  of  St.  Jean  de  Crevecoeur.— 
Duchet.— Ducarne. — Dubost. — New  hives  to  be  kept  in 

readiness  for  the  swarms No  specific  rules  for  hiving 

a  swarm.— .Depend  on  circumstances.— Description  of 
the  dress  to  be  used  when  hiving  a  swarm. — Me- 
thod to  be  adopted  with  a  swarm  having  no  Queen.— 
Swarms  divided  into  cluster-s.— Junction  of  swarms.— 
Method  to  be  adopted  in  that  case. — Practice  of 
the  ancients  to  induce  the  Bees  to  enter  the  hive.— 
The  value  of  a  swarm  determined  by  its  weight.— 
Second  swarms — Signs  of  them.— Supernumerary 
Queens  massacred.— Second  swarms  seldom  worth 
preserving.— Method  of  uniting  swarms. — Food  to  be 
given  to  a  swarm  in  rainy  weather. — Virgin 
swarms.— -Clustering  Bees. — Artificial  swarms. — Differ- 
ent methods.' — Method  of  obtaining  Queens. — Suggested 
by  Ducarne, .186 

CHAP.  XVI. 

On  the  method  of  preparing  Honey  and  Wax  for  mar- 
ket.— Situation  of  the  place  for  the  manipulation  of  the 
honey. — Implements  required  for  the  purpose. — Me- 
thod of  extracting  primary  honey. — Particular  rules  to  be 
observed. — Method  of  obtaining  secondary  honey. — 
The  operation  not  to  be  performed  in  cold  weather. — 
The  instruments  to  be  used,  to  be  taken  to  the  Apiary 
for  the  use  of  the  Bees. — Directions  for  the  same. — 
JRules  for  the  preservation  of  honey. — Proportion  of  ho- 
ney and  wax. — Adulteration  of  honey. — Two  methods  of 
discovering  it. — Rules  for  choosing  honey. — Medicinal 
properties  of  honey,  .         .         .         .         ,193 

CHAP.   XVII. 

On  the  cause  of  the  mortality  of  Bees. — Two  kinds  of 
mortality. — Cold  not  injurious  to  Bees. — Error  of  keep- 
ing Bees  warm  in  winter. — Travels  in  Russia. — Bees 
kept  in  Siberia.^ — Never  die  from  cold. — Travels  in 
Lapland. — Experiment  to  determine  the  interior  tempe- 
rature of  a  hive  in  this  country. —More  hives  destroy- 
ed by  heat  than  cold.— Hives  ruined  by  the  too  great 
influence  •f  tbe  sun,— Method  of  averting  it.— ^Danger 


CONTENTS. 


221 


to  a  hive  from  humidity.— Bees  to  be  prohibited  t© 
leave  the  hive  in  time  of  snow.— One  of  the  causes  of 
mortahty.^ — Famine  the  chief  cause. — Ducarne's  me- 
thod of  immuring  Bees.— Precautions  to  be  used  in  weigh- 
ing hives.— Danger  of  famine  may  be  averted.-- Hives 
to  be  weighed  a  second  time  in  January.— Food  to  be 
regularly  administered,      .         .         .         .         .195 

CHAP.  XVIII. 

On  the  life  of  the  Bee,  and  period  of  duration  of  a 
Hive. — General  estimate  of  the  life  of  the  Bee. — Opin- 
ion of  Reaumur. — Experiment  by  which  the  life  of  the 
Queen  has  been  ascertained. — Its  duration  be3^o|id  fouf 
years. — The  longevity  of  a  hive  difficult  to  be  determin- 
ed.— The  causes  thereof. — Duration  of  hives  in  the 
Archipelago. — The  age  of  a  hive  may  be  determined 
by  the  combs. — Hives  may  be  preserved  by  paint,     197 

CHAP.  XIX. 

On  the  deprivation  of  the  Hives, 'and  w^hethbr  it  is 
better  to  suffocate  them,  or  to  deprive  them  of  a 

PART  OF     THEIR    HONEY     AND    WAX. QueStiOD    COUSider- 

,ed. — Process  of  the  deprivation  of  a  hive. — Instructions 
to  be  observed. — Seasons  of  the  year  in  which  it  is  to 
be  performed. — Various  opinions  thereon. — Depriva- 
tions easy  in  the  author's  hives. — Calculation  of  the 
comparative  profit  of  hives  suffocated,  and  deprived. — 
Transversing  of  hives  not  beneficial. — Deprivation  by 
the  storying  system. — The  bell-shaped  hive  improper 
for  deprivation.— Disadvantages  of  the  storying  system. — 
The  system  of  suffocation  examined. — Examination  of 
the  opinion  of  La  Grenee. — His  erroneous  calcula- 
tion, .         ,         .         .         ,         ,         ,         .198 

CHAP.  XX. 

On  THE  MANNER  OF  FEEDING  Bees. — SeasoDS  for  feeding.-*- 
Food  to  be  given  at  intervals.— Too  much  food  not  to 
be  given  to  a  weak  hive.— Danger  thereof.— Feeding 
of  Bees  not  to  be  deferred  until  they  are  in  actual 
want. ---Materials  proper  for  food.— Honey  alone  inju- 
rious.—Recipes  for  food.— Manner  of  supplying  the 
hives.— Salt  to  be  mixed  with  the  food.— Quantity  of 


222  CONTENTS. 

food  consumed  by  a  hive  in  a  month.— Treacle  to  be 
used  instead  of  sugar,  *         .         .         .         .     200 

CHAP.  XXI. 

On  the  establishment  of  HrvES,  the  Bees   of  which 

HAVE  PERISHED  BY  ACCIDENT,  OR  THROUGH  WANT.— Ge- 
neral custom  adopted  with  perished  hives.— Error 
thereof.— Eggs  left  in  the  cells  in  a  fecundated  state.— • 
Method  of  managing  a  hive  under  similar  circumstan- 
ces.—A  regenerated  hive  not  to  be  placed  in  the  Apia- 
ry.—-Reason  thereof —No  swarm  to  be  expected  from 
it.-"The  contrary  affirmed  by  Ducouedic,  .     201 

CHAP.  XXII. 

On  THE  CUSTOM  OF  TRANSPORTING  HiVES  FROM  PLACE  TO 
PLACE,  FOR  THE  PURPOSE  OF  FRESH  PASTURAGE,  ACCORD- 
ING TO  THE  PRACTICE  OF  THE  AnCIENTS  AND  MoDERNS.— - 

Profits  attending  the  removal  of  hives  to  the  vicinity  of 
heath.— Custom  of  removing  hives  in  Egypt  describ- 
ed.—The  same  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Chinese.— 
Manner  of  transporting  the  hives  in  France.— Rules  laid 
down  by  M.  de  Bomare."-The  different  systems  of  re- 
moval examined.— Examination  of  the  transversing  of 
hives.— Contradictory  statements  of  the  quantity  of  ho- 
ney and  wax  in  a  hive.— Increase  of  the  weight  of  a 
hive  on  being  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  a  heath. — 
General  recommendation,  ....     202 

CHAP.  XXIII. 

On  THE  ROBBERIES  OF  BeES,  AND  THE  GENERAL  METHOD  OF 

PREVENTING  THEM.— The  Bce,  the  natural  enemy  of  the 
Bee.— Weak  hives  only  suffer  from  pillage.— A  popu- 
lous hive  often  in  want  of  provisions.— Resorts  to  rob- 
bery.—A  hive  defended  weakly  from  pillage,  if  infested 
with  the  moth.— Different  causes  of  pillage.— After  rain 
pillage  most  frequent.— Two  seasons  of  pillage  in  the 
year.— Symptoms  of  an  attacked  hive. --Regular  visits 
io  be  paid  to  the  hives  in  the  robbing  seasons.— Me- 
thod of  discovering  young  Bees  from  robbers.— Plan  to 
be  adopted  with  a  weak  hive.— Food  to  be  given  to 
weak  hives.— An  artifice  to  be  adopted  to  mislead  the 
Bees.-— Instructions  respecting  a  neighbouring  Apia- 
ry ........     205 


CONTENTS.  22t 

CHAP.   XXIV. 

Orr  THE  ADVANTAGES  WHICH  ACCRUE  TO  THE  StATE  AND  IN- 
DIVIDUALS FROM  THE  CULTURE  OF  Bees.— Importance 
of  the  wax  and  honey  trade  to  this  country.— Degraded 
state  of  the  culture  of  the  Bee  in  this  country.— Calcula- 
tions on  the  profits  of  an  Apiary  for  five  years.— The 
common  straw  hive  a  great  impediment  to  the  culture  of 
the  Bee  in  this  country.— Advantages  of  their  culture.— 
Immense  quantity  of  wax  and  honey  produced  in  the 
Island  of  Corsica.— Extract  from  a  French  news-pa- 
per.—Great  quantity  of  honey  and  wax  produced  in 
Hanover.— The  Bee  much  cultivated  in  Turkey.— 
Commerce  of  Moldavia,  Wallachia,  &c.  in  Wax.— 
Doubt   of  Linneus,  204 

CHAP.  XXV. 

Directions  for  the  purchase  of  Hives. ---Caution  to  pur- 
chasers.—Presence  of  mind  to  be  observed.— The  in- 
terior of  a  hive  to  be  examined  first.— An  old  hive  to 
be  rejected. — Signs  thereof. — A  number  of  Q,ueen  cells 
a  sign  of  the  oldness  of  a  hive. — Proper  seasons  for  the 
purchase  of  hives. — Signs  of  a  thriving  hive. — Hives 
not  to  be  purchased  in  the  immediate  vicinity. — The 
weight  the  best  criterion  of  a  hive. — Precautions  to  be 
used  in  this  respect. — Method  of  transporting  a  pur- 
chased hive. — Proper  time  for  the  same,  .     207 

CHAP.  XXVI. 

On  the  countries  most  beneficially  situated  for  thk 

CULTURE  OF  THE  BeE,  AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  HiVES  EACH 

CAN  SUPPORT. — The  southern  countries  most  advanta- 
geous to  Bees.— Opinion  of  La  Grenee  ©n  the  number 

of  hives  a  country  can  support.— The  same  examined. 

A  country  not  to  be  overstocked  with  hives.— Number 
of  Bees  to  be  kept  in  a  district,  according  to  its  fer- 
tility,  2oa 

CHAP.  XXVII. 

On  the  distance  which  Bees  fly  for  food. — Import- 
ance of  the  question. — Its  solution  most  necessary.— 
Various  opinions  concerning  it.— Huber's  decision  upon 


i24  CONTEIfTSr. 

the  subject. — Curious  circumstances  attending  aHCXcur*^ 
sioji  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  .         ,        \         .     20S. 

CHAP.  XXVIII. 
On  the  manufacture  of  Mead,  .         ,         .         .     200 


ERRATA. 


16,  line  3,  from  top,  for  a  poor  da%/^  read  a  poor  clay;  p.  18, 
m  bottom,  for  slythtic^  read  styptic ;  p.  39,  1.  15,  from  bottom, 
.  back,  read  turn  over ;  p.  31,  1    17,  from  top,  hr  preserve,  read 
ousfrcc;  p.  112,   1.  10,  from  top,  for  jDwfc/e^/,  read  Dishley ;  p.    115, 
1.  8»  from  top,  for  Diskley,  read  Dishley;  p.  115,  1.  6,  from  bottom, 
for  practices,  reQ.d  practice ;  p.  117, 1.  7,  from  top,  for  oneptchf  rea^ 


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14  DAY  USE 

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